There is no doubt that travelling broadens the minds and enlivens the spirit. It is a means of general education and an end in itself. People who have not traveled may be compared to frogs living in a well. Just like the frogs, which believe that the well is the whole world, they too believe that their village, or town, or city is itself the whole world. This way of thinking makes them narrow minded. People who often read books, magazines and newspapers come to know something about the outside world, but this is not the same as seeing the outside world with one's own eyes. No illustrated book or magazine can ever provide the joy and thrill of seeing with one's own eyes the sublime beauty of Taj Mahal by moonlight.
To travel in India and see its hills, mountains, valleys, rivers and lakes make the study of its geography vivid, lively and interesting. How interesting and exciting history becomes when we visit the very places where Shivaji was crowed king, or where Tipu Sultan was betrayed and killed! We can understand India better if we come in contact with the variety of its people- people following different religions and customs, speaking different languages, wearing different costumes and eating different types of food. And beyond India lies the vast world. How wonderful, interesting and educative it would be to visit foreign countries, experience the different climates, meet people of different races and faces and visit places of great historical importance!
Apart from natural and historical sights, travelling enables a person to meet different people and study their customs, modes of dressing, culture and language at close quarters. Meeting different people makes a person broad-minded and tolerant. Travelling brings people nearer. Their outlook becomes broad and progressive. Travelling removes prejudices and helps to build universal goodwill and fellow feeling. It helps a person to become a citizen of the world in the true sense.
Fortunately, travelling is much easier and faster today than it was ever before. For those who cannot arrange their own travelling programmes there is always a travel agency that plans a tour to suit their purse and cater to their individual needs like providing required type of meals on an international flight. Therefore, never lose an opportunity to travel. It will be an experience well worth the time and money spent after it.
Saturday, January 31, 2009
Tourism and Recreation in Montreal, Canada
The city's Old World charm attracts tourists throughout the year. Montreal has fine restaurants, hotels, department stores and shops, amusement parks, concert halls, museums, and art galleries. It specializes in bookshops in many languages and wide-ranging, frequent lectures. The Place des Arts is a three-building complex that includes Salle Wilfrid-Pelletier, a theater, and a recital hall. A conservatory of music and the Museum of Fine Arts combine with the universities to train young artists. The Terre des Hommes (Man and His World) exhibit draws millions of visitors annually to the site of Expo '67.
Natives of Montreal love sports. Hockey and baseball draw many fans, and people enjoy golf courses, bridle paths, and other sports facilities. In winter skiing and tobogganing attract many to the slopes of Mount Royal. The summer Olympic Games of 1976 were held in Montreal for which a sports stadium and swimming pool complex were built. The city's renowned ice-hockey team, the Canadiens, was founded in 1909, and in 1969 the Montreal Expos became the first major-league baseball team in a Canadian city.
Mount Royal Park covers 494 acres (200 hectares) on the top of the mountain. From the observation platform there is a vast panoramic view of the city and surrounding countryside. Near the highest point (763 feet, 233 meters) stands a cross, a memorial to the city's founder, Paul de Chomedy, sieur de Maisonneuve. It is about 100 feet (30 meters) tall and is illuminated at night. Another fine view may be had from Westmount Lookout. Near Mount Royal Park is St. Joseph's Oratory, a Roman Catholic shrine.
Natives of Montreal love sports. Hockey and baseball draw many fans, and people enjoy golf courses, bridle paths, and other sports facilities. In winter skiing and tobogganing attract many to the slopes of Mount Royal. The summer Olympic Games of 1976 were held in Montreal for which a sports stadium and swimming pool complex were built. The city's renowned ice-hockey team, the Canadiens, was founded in 1909, and in 1969 the Montreal Expos became the first major-league baseball team in a Canadian city.
Mount Royal Park covers 494 acres (200 hectares) on the top of the mountain. From the observation platform there is a vast panoramic view of the city and surrounding countryside. Near the highest point (763 feet, 233 meters) stands a cross, a memorial to the city's founder, Paul de Chomedy, sieur de Maisonneuve. It is about 100 feet (30 meters) tall and is illuminated at night. Another fine view may be had from Westmount Lookout. Near Mount Royal Park is St. Joseph's Oratory, a Roman Catholic shrine.
Punjabi Weddings, Hot on Tourist List
Chandigarh has been projected as an ideal destination to get married at the ongoing World Travel Mart (WTM) in London to cash in on the craze for the big, fat Punjabi wedding among non-resident Indians (NRIs) and foreigners.
“Chandigarh tourism has decided to adopt more novel and innovative measures like wedding tourism to promote the city as the tourism hub of north India,” the city's Home and Tourism Secretary Khrishna Mohan, who is visiting the WTM, said.
He said wedding ceremonies could be facilitated in collaboration with hotels and resorts in and around the city.
“Indian weddings are occasions to behold and Chandigarh is particularly known for its glamorous and graceful wedding ceremonies. European visitors in particularly relish such occasions and Chandigarh tourism is in the process of facilitating more foreign visitors for these ceremonies,” the home secretary said.
Mohan said that Chandigarh was not only a tourist attraction for its architectural beauty but also for medical and sports tourism. The city had excellent facilities for golf, tennis, cricket and other sports.
Chandigarh has recently been placed on the tentative list of World heritage sites, by UNESCO becoming the first Indian city to make it to the list.
“Chandigarh tourism has decided to adopt more novel and innovative measures like wedding tourism to promote the city as the tourism hub of north India,” the city's Home and Tourism Secretary Khrishna Mohan, who is visiting the WTM, said.
He said wedding ceremonies could be facilitated in collaboration with hotels and resorts in and around the city.
“Indian weddings are occasions to behold and Chandigarh is particularly known for its glamorous and graceful wedding ceremonies. European visitors in particularly relish such occasions and Chandigarh tourism is in the process of facilitating more foreign visitors for these ceremonies,” the home secretary said.
Mohan said that Chandigarh was not only a tourist attraction for its architectural beauty but also for medical and sports tourism. The city had excellent facilities for golf, tennis, cricket and other sports.
Chandigarh has recently been placed on the tentative list of World heritage sites, by UNESCO becoming the first Indian city to make it to the list.
Growth of Tourism in United States
California offers amazing year-round opportunities for tourists: swimming, skiing, hunting, fishing, and mountain climbing, as well as magnificent scenery--mountains, deserts, valleys, and seacoast--a photographer's delight. There are Balboa Park and its famous zoo in San Diego; Knott's Berry Farm, Marineland, and Disneyland; Death Valley and Yosemite and Lassen Volcanic national parks. There are also Imperial Valley, Coachella Valley, and the Salton Sea; the redwoods; and the cities of Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Francisco.
The Rocky Mountains region is an all-year wonderland for tourists. The scenery is often breathtaking. Sightseeing, hunting, fishing, and mountain climbing are popular activities in summer. Skiing at Sun Valley, Idaho, in the Sawtooth Range, created the first American winter resort. New resorts quickly followed at Jackson Hole, Wyo., and throughout Colorado's Rockies in such towns as Vail, Aspen, and Steamboat Springs.
Like the Rocky Mountains, the Western Basins and Plateaus offer much for the tourist. Indian communities have developed their own hotel facilities and guides. The annual Inter-Tribal Ceremonial at Gallup, N.M., involves some 30 Indian groups. Santa Fe and Taos, N.M., are popular resorts.
Arizona offers old mining communities at Globe-Miami, Ajo, and Bisbee. Phoenix and Tucson lead travelers to the Painted Desert and the Petrified Forest. The Grand Canyon, Bryce Canyon, and Zion national parks are unforgettable experiences.
Las Vegas and Reno are famous for legal gambling. Hoover Dam on the Colorado River is near Las Vegas. Salt Lake City and Great Salt Lake are also prime tourist attractions. Farther north the lava outcrops on the Colorado Plateau, Grand Coulee Dam, and Hanford, Wash., the atomic-energy city, attract visitors.
Americans love to run to the sun during the winter months. The Florida peninsula, Mississippi Riviera, and New Orleans are primary tourist attractions, with hotels, motels, restaurants, natural and artificial beaches, and Orlando's Walt Disney World, bringing in billions of dollars.
Henry M. Flagler saw the opportunities early. In 1885 he built the Hotel Ponce de Leon in St. Augustine, Fla. In 1891 his rival, Henry B. Plant, built the Tampa Bay Hotel on the Gulf coast. Before long wealthy Northern sun worshippers were going to the South by train--to St. Augustine, Palm Beach (where Flagler built the Breakers), and ultimately Key West (1912).
By the 1920s there was a land boom in Florida. Many speculators bought and sold lots, and there were new tourists to make purchases. Not until 1926 did the bubble burst. Following the lean tourist years of the Great Depression and World War II, a new land boom ensued with a new tourist boom. Miami became a major tourist attraction. Sun worshipers now traveled to Florida--and to other points in the region--by plane, auto, truck, and train. In 1982 tourists spent more than 21 billion dollars in Florida.
The sun and other attractions also drew a permanent and growing population to the peninsula. In 1950 Florida's population was 2.8 million; by 1960 it was 4.9 million, the highest increase over the decade for any state in the nation. And there was no abatement--by 1990 the population had swelled to more than 13 million and Florida had become the 4th largest state.
The Southern Rockies offer a number of notable attractions: Rocky Mountain National Park, Garden of the Gods, Mountain of the Holy Cross, and the Royal Gorge of the Arkansas River--all in Colorado. The Central Rockies has the oldest of the national Parks--Yellowstone, with its volcanic peaks, hot springs, geysers, petrified forests, and Yellowstone Lake and Yellowstone Falls. In the Northern Rockies is the equally delightful Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park.
The Rocky Mountains region is an all-year wonderland for tourists. The scenery is often breathtaking. Sightseeing, hunting, fishing, and mountain climbing are popular activities in summer. Skiing at Sun Valley, Idaho, in the Sawtooth Range, created the first American winter resort. New resorts quickly followed at Jackson Hole, Wyo., and throughout Colorado's Rockies in such towns as Vail, Aspen, and Steamboat Springs.
Like the Rocky Mountains, the Western Basins and Plateaus offer much for the tourist. Indian communities have developed their own hotel facilities and guides. The annual Inter-Tribal Ceremonial at Gallup, N.M., involves some 30 Indian groups. Santa Fe and Taos, N.M., are popular resorts.
Arizona offers old mining communities at Globe-Miami, Ajo, and Bisbee. Phoenix and Tucson lead travelers to the Painted Desert and the Petrified Forest. The Grand Canyon, Bryce Canyon, and Zion national parks are unforgettable experiences.
Las Vegas and Reno are famous for legal gambling. Hoover Dam on the Colorado River is near Las Vegas. Salt Lake City and Great Salt Lake are also prime tourist attractions. Farther north the lava outcrops on the Colorado Plateau, Grand Coulee Dam, and Hanford, Wash., the atomic-energy city, attract visitors.
Americans love to run to the sun during the winter months. The Florida peninsula, Mississippi Riviera, and New Orleans are primary tourist attractions, with hotels, motels, restaurants, natural and artificial beaches, and Orlando's Walt Disney World, bringing in billions of dollars.
Henry M. Flagler saw the opportunities early. In 1885 he built the Hotel Ponce de Leon in St. Augustine, Fla. In 1891 his rival, Henry B. Plant, built the Tampa Bay Hotel on the Gulf coast. Before long wealthy Northern sun worshippers were going to the South by train--to St. Augustine, Palm Beach (where Flagler built the Breakers), and ultimately Key West (1912).
By the 1920s there was a land boom in Florida. Many speculators bought and sold lots, and there were new tourists to make purchases. Not until 1926 did the bubble burst. Following the lean tourist years of the Great Depression and World War II, a new land boom ensued with a new tourist boom. Miami became a major tourist attraction. Sun worshipers now traveled to Florida--and to other points in the region--by plane, auto, truck, and train. In 1982 tourists spent more than 21 billion dollars in Florida.
The sun and other attractions also drew a permanent and growing population to the peninsula. In 1950 Florida's population was 2.8 million; by 1960 it was 4.9 million, the highest increase over the decade for any state in the nation. And there was no abatement--by 1990 the population had swelled to more than 13 million and Florida had become the 4th largest state.
The Southern Rockies offer a number of notable attractions: Rocky Mountain National Park, Garden of the Gods, Mountain of the Holy Cross, and the Royal Gorge of the Arkansas River--all in Colorado. The Central Rockies has the oldest of the national Parks--Yellowstone, with its volcanic peaks, hot springs, geysers, petrified forests, and Yellowstone Lake and Yellowstone Falls. In the Northern Rockies is the equally delightful Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park.
Growth of Tourism in Switzerland
Switzerland is one of the world's leading tourist centers. Its visitors bring in huge revenues to the economy. Tourism is a year-round industry, with a seasonal shift in activities from winter to summer. Winter sports include skiing, sledding, tobogganing, and ice-skating. The leading winter resorts are St-Moritz, Gstaad, and Interlaken. All three are world-renowned resorts. Summers bring golf, boating, swimming, hiking, and climbing. Switzerland has been called a country of hotelkeepers, and many people are employed in hotels, inns, spas, and restaurants. The Swiss are world famous for their hospitality and the quality of their cuisine.
Growth of Tourism in Spain
Tourism has made a major contribution to Spain's spectacular economic growth. Spain is the destination of about 10 percent of the world's international tourists. In 1987 this amounted to more than 50 million, outnumbering the permanent population. Many foreigners spend winters in Spain's warmer climates. Tourism received a boost in the early 1990s, when the Summer Olympic Games were held in Barcelona and a world's fair attracted many thousands to Seville during the summer of 1992.
Growth of Tourism in Philippines
Visitors to the Philippines bring in much-needed foreign currency. In 1993 receipts from tourism amounted to US $1.7 billion. About 21 percent of all visitors in 1991 were from Japan. Large numbers of tourists also visited from the United States, Hong Kong, Australia, Taiwan, Germany, Great Britain, Canada, and Singapore.
Another significant source of foreign currencies for the Philippines are remittances sent back by the thousands of Filipinos who have temporarily emigrated or the thousands at work in foreign nations. This latter group includes men working in the oil fields of the Middle East and women working as maids in the Middle East and in other Asian nations
Another significant source of foreign currencies for the Philippines are remittances sent back by the thousands of Filipinos who have temporarily emigrated or the thousands at work in foreign nations. This latter group includes men working in the oil fields of the Middle East and women working as maids in the Middle East and in other Asian nations
Growth of Tourism in New Zealand
The scenic attractions of New Zealand are unrivaled for so small an area, and there are excellent opportunities for sightseeing as well as for sports, including trout fishing, big-game fishing, and hunting, mountaineering, and skiing. The state Tourist and Publicity Department initially promoted New Zealand overseas and stimulated hotel and motel building and other tourist services. With governmental restructuring, the national Tourism Board continues overseas promotion, the Tourist Industry Federation coordinates services at home, and state hotels were transferred to private enterprise. Overseas visitors, who numbered about 150,000 annually in the mid-1960s, increased to nearly 1,000,000 by the early 1990s.
Growth of Tourism in Mexico
Tourism is a growth industry in Mexico. The country attracted visitors, especially from the United States, for many years, but in relatively limited numbers. Historically these tourists came to visit Mexico City and surrounding colonial towns in the Mesa Central and to see the archaeological ruins at Tenochtitlan and Tulum. More adventurous tourists went to the Mayan ruins of the Yucatan or to the Indian-dominated Oaxaca Valley. People later discovered Mexico's beaches, and the government invested heavily in this sector of the economy.
Nearly 17 million tourists visit the country every year, and they spend nearly 6 billion dollars in hotels, restaurants, stores, and for transportation. Tourism is Mexico's largest economic activity after petroleum. Much of the increase has been to resort and archaeological sites improved by the government. Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo, Cancun, Cozumel, Mazatlan, and Cabo San Lucas were developed or significantly improved beginning in the 1960s through the construction of new airports, hotels, and other tourist facilities. As a result these sites have become world famous. Given an exotic cultural diversity, tropical environmental settings, and relatively low prices, Mexico exerts a strong attraction on United States tourists, who represent more than 90 percent of all visitors to the country.
Nearly 17 million tourists visit the country every year, and they spend nearly 6 billion dollars in hotels, restaurants, stores, and for transportation. Tourism is Mexico's largest economic activity after petroleum. Much of the increase has been to resort and archaeological sites improved by the government. Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo, Cancun, Cozumel, Mazatlan, and Cabo San Lucas were developed or significantly improved beginning in the 1960s through the construction of new airports, hotels, and other tourist facilities. As a result these sites have become world famous. Given an exotic cultural diversity, tropical environmental settings, and relatively low prices, Mexico exerts a strong attraction on United States tourists, who represent more than 90 percent of all visitors to the country.
Growth of Tourism in Manitoba
Large numbers of tourists from other provinces and the United States visit Manitoba. The main vacation areas include Riding Mountain National Park, Whiteshell and Duck Mountain provincial parks, and the Lake Winnipeg beaches. On the Manitoba-North Dakota border is the International Peace Garden, which honors the friendship between Canada and the United States. The province is known for its hunting and fishing.
Growth of Tourism in Kenya
The other major earner of foreign exchange, the tourist industry, does not bring income to as many people as coffee or tea sales. Tourist facilities are concentrated in Nairobi, along the coast, and in the national parks. The industry is largely owned by foreign companies, however and relatively few Kenyans benefit from it.
Tourists visit Kenya for a number of reasons. Its beaches are beautiful and uncrowded, and hotels are of high quality and serve good food. Kenya has one of the world's largest wildlife populations, and a wide variety of animals can be seen in national parks. There, excellent hotels with special viewing facilities have been built for tourists. The parks protect the wildlife, but some species, such as the rhinoceros and elephant, are still-hunted by poachers for their horns and tusks. Nairobi also attracts tourists, and it has become a site for international
Tourists visit Kenya for a number of reasons. Its beaches are beautiful and uncrowded, and hotels are of high quality and serve good food. Kenya has one of the world's largest wildlife populations, and a wide variety of animals can be seen in national parks. There, excellent hotels with special viewing facilities have been built for tourists. The parks protect the wildlife, but some species, such as the rhinoceros and elephant, are still-hunted by poachers for their horns and tusks. Nairobi also attracts tourists, and it has become a site for international
Growth of Tourism in Japan
The number of foreign visitors to Japan--especially from the United States--has been increasing steadily. Japan abounds in natural scenic beauty, offers a charming combination of traditional and modern facilities, and has a great variety of cultural attractions. Tourism is well organized. There are many modern high-rise hotels, especially in Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto, and ryokan (Japanese-style inns) may be found throughout the country. Special events have attracted many visitors to Japan. The most well received of these were the summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964; Expo '70, Japan's first world's fair, near Osaka in 1970; and the winter Olympics in Sapporo in 1972.
Japan has a large number of national and prefectural parks. (Political subdivisions in Japan are called prefectures.) Mountaintops can be reached by ropeways, cable cars, and automobile toll roads. Other tourist attractions in Japan include the many ancient temples and shrines, the Japanese theater and festivals, and the restaurants and nightlife of the big cities.
Japan has a large number of national and prefectural parks. (Political subdivisions in Japan are called prefectures.) Mountaintops can be reached by ropeways, cable cars, and automobile toll roads. Other tourist attractions in Japan include the many ancient temples and shrines, the Japanese theater and festivals, and the restaurants and nightlife of the big cities.
Growth of Tourism in Ireland
The tourist industry ranks as an important source of income for Ireland. About 15 percent of the country's workforce is directly or indirectly employed in tourism. In 1991 about 3,500,000 long-staying tourists visited the country. Most of them came from Great Britain, followed by Northern Ireland and the United States. Many tourists are relatives or friends of the millions of Irish people who emigrated to other parts of the world. Increasing numbers of visitors are drawn by the relative lack of commercialization in Ireland, the low cost of touring, good highways, charming rural landscape, historical attractions, and generally uncrowded character.
Growth of Tourism in France
Tourism ranks as one of France's leading industries. The country has a variety of landscapes and climates unmatched in Europe. These features, together with an abundance of historical and cultural sites, artistic and architectural treasures, recreational facilities, and the nation's famous foods and wines, have made France a favorite of tourists from North America and other parts of Europe. Increasing numbers of travelers from Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East are visiting France. In 1991 foreign tourists spent some 9 billion dollars more in France than French travelers spent abroad.
The French travel widely within their own country as well. The introduction of paid vacations for industrial workers, beginning in the late 1930s, led to a boom in family tourism. Today most French workers receive four or five weeks of paid vacation annually, and such regions as Brittany and Languedoc profit from low-budget family tourism. Many wealthier city residents have second homes, either in places from which their families once migrated or in desirable vacation districts. Many of these homes are used for retirement as well as for holiday sites during the owners' working years.
For international travelers, as for many French people from throughout the country, Paris remains the greatest attraction. The capital's artistic and cultural attractions, its famous shops and restaurants, the color and animation of its many districts, and such world-famous symbols as the Eiffel Tower, the Louvre, the Cathedral of Notre Dame, the Latin Quarter, Montmartre, and the Georges Pompidou Center make Paris one of the most visited places in the world (see Paris).
Next to Paris in popularity is the Mediterranean coast, especially the Provence-Cote d'Azur section, which includes part of the French Riviera. Sheltered by the Alps, the Riviera first became popular in the 1860s as a winter resort for wealthy visitors, mainly tourists from England. Its fame grew steadily, and today it is known especially as a summer resort area.
The mountainous areas of France, particularly the Rhone-Alpes region, have also had a dramatic rise in tourist income during recent years, largely because of increasing interest in winter sports. People once visited the mountains mainly in summer for health reasons, but these areas now benefit from almost a year-round season, and such resorts as Chamonix and Morzine are internationally famous.
The French travel widely within their own country as well. The introduction of paid vacations for industrial workers, beginning in the late 1930s, led to a boom in family tourism. Today most French workers receive four or five weeks of paid vacation annually, and such regions as Brittany and Languedoc profit from low-budget family tourism. Many wealthier city residents have second homes, either in places from which their families once migrated or in desirable vacation districts. Many of these homes are used for retirement as well as for holiday sites during the owners' working years.
For international travelers, as for many French people from throughout the country, Paris remains the greatest attraction. The capital's artistic and cultural attractions, its famous shops and restaurants, the color and animation of its many districts, and such world-famous symbols as the Eiffel Tower, the Louvre, the Cathedral of Notre Dame, the Latin Quarter, Montmartre, and the Georges Pompidou Center make Paris one of the most visited places in the world (see Paris).
Next to Paris in popularity is the Mediterranean coast, especially the Provence-Cote d'Azur section, which includes part of the French Riviera. Sheltered by the Alps, the Riviera first became popular in the 1860s as a winter resort for wealthy visitors, mainly tourists from England. Its fame grew steadily, and today it is known especially as a summer resort area.
The mountainous areas of France, particularly the Rhone-Alpes region, have also had a dramatic rise in tourist income during recent years, largely because of increasing interest in winter sports. People once visited the mountains mainly in summer for health reasons, but these areas now benefit from almost a year-round season, and such resorts as Chamonix and Morzine are internationally famous.
Growth of Tourism in Europe
Income, from European and international tourists offsets unfavorable balances of trade in most European countries. The attractive scenery, combined with a long and fascinating historical heritage, provides numerous tourist attractions throughout the continent. An example is Switzerland, with its unsurpassed Alpine landscape combined with lakes, picturesque cities, historical buildings, and charming farming scenes on the populated central plateau. Swiss hotel, restaurant, and recreation site management have become models for the world.
Europe has varied environments from subtropical to polar, each with its attraction for the tourist. Major cities--such as London, Paris, Copenhagen, Amsterdam, Vienna, Madrid, Rome, Athens, Budapest, and Moscow--attract millions of visitors and billions of dollars each year. In the EC countries about 2 percent of gross domestic product comes from tourism, with an annual growth rate of 3 to 10 percent. There are some negative effects of rapid tourism growth. These include the pollution of lakes and rivers, overcrowding of beach areas, and misuse of rural, mountainous, and scenic land by increasing numbers of recreational visitors. Large numbers of foreigners also tend to change the culture of an area, often undesirably.
Europe has varied environments from subtropical to polar, each with its attraction for the tourist. Major cities--such as London, Paris, Copenhagen, Amsterdam, Vienna, Madrid, Rome, Athens, Budapest, and Moscow--attract millions of visitors and billions of dollars each year. In the EC countries about 2 percent of gross domestic product comes from tourism, with an annual growth rate of 3 to 10 percent. There are some negative effects of rapid tourism growth. These include the pollution of lakes and rivers, overcrowding of beach areas, and misuse of rural, mountainous, and scenic land by increasing numbers of recreational visitors. Large numbers of foreigners also tend to change the culture of an area, often undesirably.
Growth of Tourism in England
Tourism is an important branch of the economy. More than 17 million foreign tourists arrive annually in Great Britain. Most come to England though some tourists may only pass through on their way to Scotland or Wales. About two thirds of the visitors come from Western European countries and about 20 percent from North America. London is by far the most visited city. The English Tourist Board is a government-supported agency that promotes tourism by advertising, publishing promotional literature, and encouraging the improvement of tourist accommodations, restaurants, and other amenities.
The English themselves are great travelers, and there are many travel agencies. The biggest of these is Thomas Cook, founded in the 1850s as the first travel agency in the world. In recent years more than 31 million British people annually have made trips abroad. Most travel in Europe, with France as the popular destination in summer and Spain in winter.
In the past most English travelers vacationed in the British Isles. A number of seaside resorts arose that catered to visitors from nearby urban areas. The major resorts for London were Brighton, Hastings, and others on the southern coast. Blackpool served the industrial northwest and Hartlepool the north.
The English themselves are great travelers, and there are many travel agencies. The biggest of these is Thomas Cook, founded in the 1850s as the first travel agency in the world. In recent years more than 31 million British people annually have made trips abroad. Most travel in Europe, with France as the popular destination in summer and Spain in winter.
In the past most English travelers vacationed in the British Isles. A number of seaside resorts arose that catered to visitors from nearby urban areas. The major resorts for London were Brighton, Hastings, and others on the southern coast. Blackpool served the industrial northwest and Hartlepool the north.
Saturday, January 3, 2009
HOW TO TRAVEL FREE ANYWHERE IN THE WORLD – 2 WAYS
You can travel free anywhere in the world and stay for free in private homes and luxury hotels. How? By one or both of the following methods:
Method 1:
Join a Co-operative Exchange and Travel Club (Listed below) for as little as $5. As a travel club member you receive a list of as many as 5000 names and addresses from all over the U.S and the world. Only members receive the list. As a member, you offer your home as stopping point for compatible people when it is convenient for you. In return, you can stay for free in any of over 5000 homes throughout the world. Most of the people who belong to this clubs are interesting, adventurous and fun- loving. On your next vacation enjoy the personal contact of staying in someone else’s home. See the world on a shoestring and enjoy! Write to the following clubs for complete details:
TRAVELER’S DIRECTORY, Box 1547, 537 Church St. Lancaster, PA 17604, USA
VACATION EXCHANGE CLUB, 119 Fifth Ave., New York, NY, USA
HOLIDAY HOME EXCHANGE, Box 555, Grants, Nm 07020; USA
WORLDWIDE VACATION HOMES, 5264 Proctor Rd., Castro Valley, CA, USA
Method 2:
Become an “Outside agent” for a travel agency, a tour guide or coordinator for group tours. Go to a large travel agency and contract with them for a free trip (all expenses paid) in exchange for your securing 20 to 30 people to go with you on a group tour.
Method 1:
Join a Co-operative Exchange and Travel Club (Listed below) for as little as $5. As a travel club member you receive a list of as many as 5000 names and addresses from all over the U.S and the world. Only members receive the list. As a member, you offer your home as stopping point for compatible people when it is convenient for you. In return, you can stay for free in any of over 5000 homes throughout the world. Most of the people who belong to this clubs are interesting, adventurous and fun- loving. On your next vacation enjoy the personal contact of staying in someone else’s home. See the world on a shoestring and enjoy! Write to the following clubs for complete details:
TRAVELER’S DIRECTORY, Box 1547, 537 Church St. Lancaster, PA 17604, USA
VACATION EXCHANGE CLUB, 119 Fifth Ave., New York, NY, USA
HOLIDAY HOME EXCHANGE, Box 555, Grants, Nm 07020; USA
WORLDWIDE VACATION HOMES, 5264 Proctor Rd., Castro Valley, CA, USA
Method 2:
Become an “Outside agent” for a travel agency, a tour guide or coordinator for group tours. Go to a large travel agency and contract with them for a free trip (all expenses paid) in exchange for your securing 20 to 30 people to go with you on a group tour.
In case of Self Driven Tourists Tips
Dress up your vehicle properly before undertaking outdoor journey as per details given here in below:
a) Get your vehicle properly checked up by your garage for fitness before start on a trip.
b) Get the vehicle serviced before the trip.
c) Get the engine tuned for trouble-free motoring.
d) Get the battery and cables properly checked.
e) Check fuel system for clogged or leaky pipes.
f) Get the dynamo charging rate adjusted to a little lower than for normal town running as overcharging burns out the armature necessitating hasty and expensive replacement on the road. If the dynamo has not been overhauled for the last 15,000 kms it would be advisable to get it overhauled to prevent failure of bushing and bearing on the way.
g) Clean the cleaners the air cleaner, the breather capl the fuel pump sediment bowl and strainer and the fuel filter.
h) Check and oil and oil filter replace if necessary. Carry extra can of in the trunk.
i) Hose pipes wear out on the inside. Pinch the pipes; replace if they feel spongy. Check clamps for tightness. It is advisable to carry spare hosepipes and a tinful of water.
j) Get the brakes and clutch adjusted if necessary.
k) Get the wheel alignment checked and adjusted properly to have a better feel of the vehicle and to reduce tyre wear.
l) Get the tyres checked. Make sure the spare is in good condition and properly inflated.
m) Ensure you have the following equipment with you on the trip:
A spare wheel pumped to the correct pressure. Tyre lever, puncture Kit and pump. Jack/wheel brace. Spares: bulbs for lights, fuses for electrical system, fan belt, radiator hose, Tools kit of the vehicle. Tow rope and spade. A piece of soap temporarily helps stop leaks in petrol tanks.
a) Get your vehicle properly checked up by your garage for fitness before start on a trip.
b) Get the vehicle serviced before the trip.
c) Get the engine tuned for trouble-free motoring.
d) Get the battery and cables properly checked.
e) Check fuel system for clogged or leaky pipes.
f) Get the dynamo charging rate adjusted to a little lower than for normal town running as overcharging burns out the armature necessitating hasty and expensive replacement on the road. If the dynamo has not been overhauled for the last 15,000 kms it would be advisable to get it overhauled to prevent failure of bushing and bearing on the way.
g) Clean the cleaners the air cleaner, the breather capl the fuel pump sediment bowl and strainer and the fuel filter.
h) Check and oil and oil filter replace if necessary. Carry extra can of in the trunk.
i) Hose pipes wear out on the inside. Pinch the pipes; replace if they feel spongy. Check clamps for tightness. It is advisable to carry spare hosepipes and a tinful of water.
j) Get the brakes and clutch adjusted if necessary.
k) Get the wheel alignment checked and adjusted properly to have a better feel of the vehicle and to reduce tyre wear.
l) Get the tyres checked. Make sure the spare is in good condition and properly inflated.
m) Ensure you have the following equipment with you on the trip:
A spare wheel pumped to the correct pressure. Tyre lever, puncture Kit and pump. Jack/wheel brace. Spares: bulbs for lights, fuses for electrical system, fan belt, radiator hose, Tools kit of the vehicle. Tow rope and spade. A piece of soap temporarily helps stop leaks in petrol tanks.
MEDICAL KIT FOR TRAVELLERS
As a traveler, who gets out of the state each year for varying period of time, one of the things I have learned never to leave home without is my medical kit. In the last several years of getting away from home – mostly on my own – I recall being stricken twice, once by a bug that enticed its way into my unsuspecting gut, and an another occasion by a throat infection that nearly spoiled my journey for all the involved parties. And so when I leave the borders of this state, the one item that travels with me is a kit that contains just about everything one would need to stay well and get back alive.
While I stop short of packing antibiotics, there are some essentials that you might want to have on-board should you desire to prep such a kit. The last time I travelled was by air and one of the side pouches of my bag was filled with tablets. The security man has been asleep, because the bag slid through the screening machine without a warning scream and a show of guns.
The one pill you want to have close to you is the omnipotent painkiller strip. Takes care of fever, headache and body-ache. The body-ache could be because of the uncomfortable night’s sleep – or lack of it – in the bus or train bunk. The headache could be due to the low quality of the movie being screened – or the fact that it kept playing until half past midnight. Keep it close at hand.
Food poisoning is something that most travelers have to cope with, especially if you’re every meal isn’t at a four star-point. Eat at a roadside stall, or sip water inside an Udupi dinner and next you know you could be laid down in beds with a gut virus. So you might want to lug along some anti-diarrhoeals and oral rehydration powder packets.
Anti-motion sickness pills might be worth keeping if you’re the sort that has to travel light – or risk spilling the beans before the ride is over. If your asthmatic, then your inhaler needs place in your kit: a change of climate as well as dusty climes can trigger an acute attack of wheezing. Don’t get caught off-guard.
One of the things I usually take along ids some anti-allergy pills. The line of thinking is: hotel or train linen that isn’t up to the mark in levels of hygiene, or may be plane seat whose previous tenant shed hair follicles like a rabbit with a serious case of fleabite. Never have to use any, but you can never say. And if the spouse is coming alone and it’s not all business then a blister pack of OCTs could come in handy.
These tablets are, of course, in addition to whatever, if any, therapy you might already been taking. If you are taking a big supply of tablets, better you also pack up a doctor’s prescription (and letter of explanation) for the same, just to avoid any trouble with Customs at your ports of entry.
While I stop short of packing antibiotics, there are some essentials that you might want to have on-board should you desire to prep such a kit. The last time I travelled was by air and one of the side pouches of my bag was filled with tablets. The security man has been asleep, because the bag slid through the screening machine without a warning scream and a show of guns.
The one pill you want to have close to you is the omnipotent painkiller strip. Takes care of fever, headache and body-ache. The body-ache could be because of the uncomfortable night’s sleep – or lack of it – in the bus or train bunk. The headache could be due to the low quality of the movie being screened – or the fact that it kept playing until half past midnight. Keep it close at hand.
Food poisoning is something that most travelers have to cope with, especially if you’re every meal isn’t at a four star-point. Eat at a roadside stall, or sip water inside an Udupi dinner and next you know you could be laid down in beds with a gut virus. So you might want to lug along some anti-diarrhoeals and oral rehydration powder packets.
Anti-motion sickness pills might be worth keeping if you’re the sort that has to travel light – or risk spilling the beans before the ride is over. If your asthmatic, then your inhaler needs place in your kit: a change of climate as well as dusty climes can trigger an acute attack of wheezing. Don’t get caught off-guard.
One of the things I usually take along ids some anti-allergy pills. The line of thinking is: hotel or train linen that isn’t up to the mark in levels of hygiene, or may be plane seat whose previous tenant shed hair follicles like a rabbit with a serious case of fleabite. Never have to use any, but you can never say. And if the spouse is coming alone and it’s not all business then a blister pack of OCTs could come in handy.
These tablets are, of course, in addition to whatever, if any, therapy you might already been taking. If you are taking a big supply of tablets, better you also pack up a doctor’s prescription (and letter of explanation) for the same, just to avoid any trouble with Customs at your ports of entry.
TIME TRAVEL
INTRODUCTION
Time Travel, travel into the past or future. Long a staple theme of science fiction, it is now a subject of serious research. In the 1980s mathematical physicists made the surprising discovery that there is nothing to forbid time travel in the laws of physics as understood at present (in particular, the general theory of relativity). It would be extremely difficult to build a working time machine, but it is possible in principle, and there may even be naturally occurring objects in the universe today that function as time machines.
MASSIVE ROTATING CYLINDERS
Two theoretical types of time machine are known. Both depend on the fact that space and time are not distinct entities, but merge into one four-dimensional whole, the space-time of relativity. The first kind of time machine consists of an extremely dense object that rotates extremely rapidly. The strong gravitational grip of the massive object “drags space-time around” as it spins. To the physicist, this metaphor has a precise interpretation, and represents the interlinked distortions of the geometry of space and the passage of time near the rotating object.
A spaceship travelling on a precisely worked out path could approach a suitable massive spinning object and travel past it on a trajectory that seemed to all the occupants of the spaceship to be merely a journey through space, and affected every instrument on board accordingly, yet emerged on the other side in a different time, either in the past or in the future.
The kind of spinning object required to achieve this result would be equivalent to ten neutron stars (see Star: Pulsars and Neutron Stars), each containing as much mass as the Sun in a volume no bigger than Mount Everest, joined pole to pole to form a cylinder and spinning 2,000 times every second. No such object is known, and it is not clear that if one were formed it would be stable: apart from anything else, it seems that gravitation would soon crush such an object to a sphere, and then a black hole, a theoretical object from which no matter or radiation escapes. But millisecond pulsars, which are individual neutron stars rotating about 700 times per second, are intriguingly close to the conditions required for time travel.
WORMHOLES
The second approach to time travel involves black holes. The equations of relativity suggest that pairs of black holes may be connected by “tunnels” that make a short-cut through space-time. These tunnels are known as wormholes. The two black holes—the mouths of the tunnel—can be anywhere in space or time, and still be connected by a wormhole. Thus one mouth could be here now, while the other is in the same place a thousand years in the past. If so, an object could enter the present-day mouth and emerge a thousand years ago.
A problem here (apart from the difficulty of finding or manufacturing a black hole) is that gravity tends to snap the wormhole shut. It might, though, be possible to keep the wormhole open by threading it with exotic matter, material that physicists conjecture may exist but has not yet been detected (see Dark Matter). Black holes almost certainly exist, ranging from objects in our Milky Way galaxy with a few times the mass of the Sun, to objects with millions of times the mass of the Sun in the hearts of other galaxies and in quasars.
Although these speculative possibilities do not provide practical ways of building time machines, physicists continue to study this topic because of the possibility that the entire universe may be threaded by tiny wormholes, with mouths much smaller than a proton. Such wormholes could explain why the laws of physics are the same everywhere in the universe—why, for example, an electron on Earth has the same charge and mass as an electron in a distant galaxy. It has been seriously (though speculatively) suggested that it is information leaking across time and space through microscopic wormholes that keeps the laws of physics constant from one place to another and from one time to another.
Time Travel, travel into the past or future. Long a staple theme of science fiction, it is now a subject of serious research. In the 1980s mathematical physicists made the surprising discovery that there is nothing to forbid time travel in the laws of physics as understood at present (in particular, the general theory of relativity). It would be extremely difficult to build a working time machine, but it is possible in principle, and there may even be naturally occurring objects in the universe today that function as time machines.
MASSIVE ROTATING CYLINDERS
Two theoretical types of time machine are known. Both depend on the fact that space and time are not distinct entities, but merge into one four-dimensional whole, the space-time of relativity. The first kind of time machine consists of an extremely dense object that rotates extremely rapidly. The strong gravitational grip of the massive object “drags space-time around” as it spins. To the physicist, this metaphor has a precise interpretation, and represents the interlinked distortions of the geometry of space and the passage of time near the rotating object.
A spaceship travelling on a precisely worked out path could approach a suitable massive spinning object and travel past it on a trajectory that seemed to all the occupants of the spaceship to be merely a journey through space, and affected every instrument on board accordingly, yet emerged on the other side in a different time, either in the past or in the future.
The kind of spinning object required to achieve this result would be equivalent to ten neutron stars (see Star: Pulsars and Neutron Stars), each containing as much mass as the Sun in a volume no bigger than Mount Everest, joined pole to pole to form a cylinder and spinning 2,000 times every second. No such object is known, and it is not clear that if one were formed it would be stable: apart from anything else, it seems that gravitation would soon crush such an object to a sphere, and then a black hole, a theoretical object from which no matter or radiation escapes. But millisecond pulsars, which are individual neutron stars rotating about 700 times per second, are intriguingly close to the conditions required for time travel.
WORMHOLES
The second approach to time travel involves black holes. The equations of relativity suggest that pairs of black holes may be connected by “tunnels” that make a short-cut through space-time. These tunnels are known as wormholes. The two black holes—the mouths of the tunnel—can be anywhere in space or time, and still be connected by a wormhole. Thus one mouth could be here now, while the other is in the same place a thousand years in the past. If so, an object could enter the present-day mouth and emerge a thousand years ago.
A problem here (apart from the difficulty of finding or manufacturing a black hole) is that gravity tends to snap the wormhole shut. It might, though, be possible to keep the wormhole open by threading it with exotic matter, material that physicists conjecture may exist but has not yet been detected (see Dark Matter). Black holes almost certainly exist, ranging from objects in our Milky Way galaxy with a few times the mass of the Sun, to objects with millions of times the mass of the Sun in the hearts of other galaxies and in quasars.
Although these speculative possibilities do not provide practical ways of building time machines, physicists continue to study this topic because of the possibility that the entire universe may be threaded by tiny wormholes, with mouths much smaller than a proton. Such wormholes could explain why the laws of physics are the same everywhere in the universe—why, for example, an electron on Earth has the same charge and mass as an electron in a distant galaxy. It has been seriously (though speculatively) suggested that it is information leaking across time and space through microscopic wormholes that keeps the laws of physics constant from one place to another and from one time to another.
TOURISM A BOON OR BANE IN GOA
Goa is a land of scenic beauty. Our dreams were fulfilled when Goa got its statehood in 1987. Many tourists started becoming aware of its beauty and were attracted towards Goa.
Tourism can be a boost for the poor as well as the rich. It provides job opportunities for the jobless. Money will grow at a faster rate. This tiny Goa attracts thousands of tourists because of the sun, sand, surf and seafood. Goa is referred to as : A garden in the east, but planted on the west coast of India. Our golden beaches and famous temples attract the tourists from far and wide.
In Goa tourism has a lot to provide at the same time it can be dangerous. Tourism concentrates on man and nature. This is to travel and see/ watch the places and people. When in Goa one can relax and enjoy life far from the noise city. This activity of tourism can be dangerous depending on how the people and the land are treated.
Why cannot we do something so that all the four stars and five stars hotels will not betray their motherland? They do this when the four stars and five stars hotels rob our beaches and make it a private property.
The future of Goa will be bright if tourism is promoted on the right line. But if business and industry takes the upper hand it will surely mar its beauty. We should develop tourism as a human enterprise to promote peace and understanding
Tourism can be a boost for the poor as well as the rich. It provides job opportunities for the jobless. Money will grow at a faster rate. This tiny Goa attracts thousands of tourists because of the sun, sand, surf and seafood. Goa is referred to as : A garden in the east, but planted on the west coast of India. Our golden beaches and famous temples attract the tourists from far and wide.
In Goa tourism has a lot to provide at the same time it can be dangerous. Tourism concentrates on man and nature. This is to travel and see/ watch the places and people. When in Goa one can relax and enjoy life far from the noise city. This activity of tourism can be dangerous depending on how the people and the land are treated.
Why cannot we do something so that all the four stars and five stars hotels will not betray their motherland? They do this when the four stars and five stars hotels rob our beaches and make it a private property.
The future of Goa will be bright if tourism is promoted on the right line. But if business and industry takes the upper hand it will surely mar its beauty. We should develop tourism as a human enterprise to promote peace and understanding
TOURISM
Tourism is travel for recreational or leisure purposes. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who "travel to and stay in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited". Tourism has become a popular global leisure activity. In 2007, there were over 903 million international tourist arrivals, with a growth of 6.6% as compared to 2006. International tourist receipts were USD 856 billion in 2007. Despite the uncertainties in the global economy, arrivals grew at around 5% during the first four months of 2008, almost a similar growth than the same period in 2007.
Tourism is vital for many countries such as U.A.E, Egypt, Greece, Thailand and many island nations such as Bahamas, Fiji, Maldives, Seychelles due to the large intake of money for businesses with their goods and services and the opportunity for employment in the service industries associated with tourism. These service industries include transportation services such as cruise ships and taxis, accommodation such as hotels and entertainment venues, and other hospitality industry services such as resorts.
Definition
Hunziker and Krapf, in 1941, defined tourism as "the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity." In 1976, the Tourism Society of England defined it as "Tourism is the temporary, short-term movement of people to destination outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during the stay at each destination. It includes movements for all purposes." In 1981, International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined Tourism in terms of particular activities selected by choice and undertaken outside the home environment.
The United Nations classified three forms of tourism in 1994 in its Recommendations on Tourism Statistics: Domestic tourism, which involves residents of the given country traveling only within this country; Inbound tourism, involving non-residents traveling in the given country; and Outbound tourism, involving residents traveling in another country.
The UN also derived different categories of tourism by combining the 3 basic forms of tourism: Internal tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and inbound tourism; National tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism; and International tourism, which consists of inbound tourism and outbound tourism. Intrabound tourism is a term coined by the Korea Tourism Organization and widely accepted in Korea. Intrabound tourism differs from domestic tourism in that the former encompasses policymaking and implementation of national tourism policies.
Recently, the tourism industry has shifted from the promotion of inbound tourism to the promotion of intrabound tourism because many countries are experiencing tough competition for inbound tourists. Some national policymakers have shifted their priority to the promotion of intrabound tourism to contribute to the local economy. Examples of such campaigns include "See America" in the United States, "Truly Asia" in Malaysia, "Get Going Canada" in Canada, "Wow Philippines" in the Philippines, "Uniquely Singapore" in Singapore, "100% Pure New Zealand" in New Zealand, "Amazing Thailand" in Thailand, "The Hidden Charm" in Vietnam and "Incredible India" in India.
World tourism statistics and rankings
Most visited countries
The World Tourism Organization reports the following ten countries as the most visited in 2007 by number of international travelers. When compared to 2006, Ukraine entered the top ten list, surpassing Russia, Austria and Mexico. Most of the top visited countries continue to be on the European continent.
International tourism receipts
International tourist receipts were USD 96.7 billion in 2007, up from USD 85.7 billion in 2006. When the export value of international passenger travel receipts is accounted for, total receipts in 2007 reached a record of USD 1.02 trillion or 3 billion a day.The World Tourism Organization reports the following 10 countries as the top ten tourism earners for the year 2007. It is noticeable that most of them are on the European continent, but the United States continues to be the top earner.
International tourism top spenders
The World Tourism Organization reports the following 10 countries as the top ten biggest spenders on international tourism for the year 2007. For the fifth year in a row, German tourists continue as the top spenders.A study by Dresdner Bank study forecasts that for 2008 Germans and Europeans in general will continue to be the top spenders because of the strength of the Euro against the US dollar, with strong demand for the US in favor of other destinations.
History
Wealthy people have always traveled to distant parts of the world to see great buildings and works of art, to learn new languages, to experience new cultures, and to taste different cuisines. As long ago as the time of the Roman Republic, places such as Baiae were popular coastal resorts for the rich. The word tourism was used by 1811 and tourist by 1840. In 1936 the League of Nations defined foreign tourist as someone travelling abroad for at least twenty-four hours. Its successor, the United Nations amended this definition in 1945 by including a maximum stay of six months.
Pre twentieth century
European tourism can be said to originate with the medieval pilgrimage. Although undertaken primarily for religious reasons, the pilgrims in the Canterbury Tales saw the experience as a holiday (the term itself being derived from the 'holy day' and its associated leisure activities). Pilgrimages created a variety of tourist aspects that still exist - bringing back souvenirs, obtaining credit with foreign banks (in medieval times utilizing international networks established by the Lombards), and making use of space available on existing forms of transport (such as the use of medieval English wine ships bound for Vigo by pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela). Religious and secular pilgrimages are still prevalent in modern tourism - such as to Lourdes or Knock in Ireland, Graceland and the grave of Jim Morrison in Père Lachaise Cemetery.
During the 17th century, it became fashionable in England to undertake a Grand Tour. The sons of the nobility and gentry were sent upon an extended tour of Europe as an educational experience. The 18th century was the golden age of the Grand Tour, and many of the fashionable visitors were painted at Rome by Pompeo Batoni.
Health tourism has long existed, but it was not until the eighteenth century that it became important. In England, it was associated with spas, places with supposedly health-giving mineral waters, treating diseases from gout to liver disorders and bronchitis. The most popular resorts were Bath, Cheltenham, Buxton, Harrogate, and Tunbridge Wells. Visits to take 'the waters' also allowed the visitors to attend balls and other entertainments. Continental Spas such as Carlsbad (Karlovy Vary) attracted many fashionable travellers by the nineteenth century.
Leisure travel
Leisure travel was associated with the industrialisation of United Kingdom – the first European country to promote leisure time to the increasing industrial population. Initially, this applied to the owners of the machinery of production, the economic oligarchy, the factory owners, and the traders. These comprised the new middle class. Cox & Kings were the first official travel company to be formed in 1758. Later, the working class could take advantage of leisure time.
The British origin of this new industry is reflected in many place names. At Nice, France, one of the first and best-established holiday resorts on the French Riviera, the long esplanade along the seafront is known to this day as the Promenade des Anglais; in many other historic resorts in continental Europe, old well-established palace hotels have names like the Hotel Bristol, the Hotel Carlton or the Hotel Majestic - reflecting the dominance of English customers.
Many tourists do leisure tourism in the tropics both in the summer and winter. It is often done in places such as Cuba, The Dominican Republic, Thailand, North
Winter tourism
Winter sports were largely invented by the British leisured classes, initially at the Swiss village of Zermatt (Valais), and St Moritz in 1864. The first packaged winter sports holidays took place in 1902 at Adelboden, Switzerland. Winter sports were a natural answer for a leisured class looking for amusement during the coldest season.
Major ski resorts are located in various mainland European countries, Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Korea, Chile and Argentina.
Mass tourism
Mass travel could only develop with improvements in technology allowed the transport of large numbers of people in a short space of time to places of leisure interest, and greater numbers of people began to enjoy the benefits of leisure time.
In the United States, the first great seaside resort, in the European style, was Atlantic City, New Jersey, and Long Island.
In Continental Europe, early resorts included Ostend (for the people of Brussels), and Boulogne-sur-Mer (Pas-de-Calais) and Deauville (Calvados) (for Parisians), and Heiligendamm (founded 1797 as the first seaside resort at the Baltic Sea).
Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.
Great Barrier Reef, Australia is one of the most visited places of diving tourists.
The Hagia Sophia in İstanbul, Turkey.
Machu Picchu in Cuzco, Peru, one of the most visited destinations in South America.
Red Square in Moscow, Russia.
Recent developments
There has been an upmarket trend in the tourism over the last few decades, especially in Europe where international travel for short breaks is common. Tourists have higher levels of disposable income and greater leisure time and they are also better-educated and have more sophisticated tastes. There is now a demand for a better quality products, which has resulted in a fragmenting of the mass market for beach vacations; people want more specialised versions, such as Club 18-30, quieter resorts, family-oriented holidays, or niche market-targeted destination hotels.
The developments in technology and transport infrastructure, such as jumbo jets and low-cost airlines, and more accessible airports have made many types of tourism more affordable. There have also been changes in lifestyle, such as retiree-age people who sustain year round tourism. This is facilitated by internet sales of tourism products. Some sites have now started to offer dynamic packaging, in which an inclusive price is quoted for a tailor-made package requested by the customer upon impulse.
There have been a few setbacks in tourism, such as the September 11, 2001 attacks and terrorist threats to tourist destinations such as Bali and European cities. Some of the tourist destinations, including the beach resorts of Cancún have lost popularity due to shifting tastes. In this context, the excessive building and environmental destruction often associated with traditional "sun and beach" tourism may contribute to a destination's saturation and subsequent decline. Spain's Costa Brava, a popular 1960s and 1970s beach location is now facing a crisis in its tourism industry.
On December 26, 2004 a tsunami, caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake hit Asian countries bordering the Indian Ocean, and also the Maldives. Thousands of lives were lost, and many tourists died. This, together with the vast clean-up operation in place, has stopped or severely hampered tourism to the area.
The terms tourism and travel are sometimes used interchangeably. In this context travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited by tourists.
Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. One of the most famous natural attractions in the world.
Medical tourism
When there is a significant price difference between countries for a given medical procedure particularly in South East Asia, India and Eastern Europe or where there are different regulatory regimes between countries in relation to particular medical procedures (eg dentistry) travelling to take advantage of the price or regulatory differences is often referred to as "medical tourism".
Educational tourism
Educational tourism developed because of the growing popularity of teaching and learning of knowledge, and enhancing technical competency outside the classroom environment. In the educational tourism, the main focus of the tour or leisure activity includes visitation of another country to learn about the culture of the visited country (Student Exchange Program and Study Tour) or to work and apply their learning inside the classroom in different environment (International Practicum Training Program).
Other developments
Creative tourism Creative tourism has existed as a form of cultural tourism since the early beginnings of tourism itself. Its European roots date back to the time of the Grand Tour, which saw the sons of aristocratic families traveling for the purpose of (mostly interactive) educational experiences. More recently, creative tourism has been given its own name by Crispin Raymond and Greg Richards, who as a member of the Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS) has directed a number of projects for the European Commission, including cultural tourism, crafts tourism or sustainable tourism. They have defined "creative tourism" as tourism related to the active participation of travelers in the culture of the host community, through interactive workshops and informal learning experiences.
Meanwhile, the concept of creative tourism has been picked up by high-profile organizations such as UNESCO, who through the Creative Cities Network have endorsed creative tourism as an engaged, authentic experience that promotes an active understanding of the specific cultural features of a place.
More recently, creative tourism has gained popularity as a form of cultural tourism, drawing on active participation by travelers in the culture of the host communities they visit. Several countries offer examples of this type of tourism development, including the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy and New Zealand.
Dark tourism One emerging area of special interest tourism has been identified by Lennon and Foley (2000) as "dark" tourism. This type of tourism involves visits to "dark" sites such as battlegrounds, scenes of horrific crimes or acts of genocide, for example concentration camps. Dark tourism poses severe ethical and moral dilemmas: should these sites be available for visitation and, if so, what should the nature of the publicity involved be. Dark tourism remains a small niche market driven by varied motivations, such as mourning, remembrance, macabre curiosity or even entertainment. Its early origins are rooted in fairgrounds and medieval fairs.
Growth
International tourism receipts in 2005
The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) forecasts that international tourism will continue growing at the average annual rate of 4 %. By 2020 Europe will remain the most popular destination, but its share will drop from 60% in 1995 to 46%. Long-haul will grow slightly faster than intraregional travel and by 2020 its share will increase from 18% in 1995 to 24%.
With the advent of e-commerce, tourism products have become one of the most traded items on the internet. Tourism products and services have been made available through intermediaries, although tourism providers (hotels, airlines, etc.) can sell their services directly. This has put pressure on intermediaries from both on-line and traditional shops.
It has been suggested there is a strong correlation between Tourism expenditure per capita and the degree to which countries play in the global context. Not only as a result of the important economic contribution of the tourism industry, but also as an indicator of the degree of confidence with which global citizens leverage the resources of the globe for the benefit of their local economies. This is why any projections of growth in tourism may serve as an indication of the relative influence that each country will exercise in the future.
Space tourism is expected to "take off" in the first quarter of the 21st century, although compared with traditional destinations the number of tourists in orbit will remain low until technologies such as a space elevator make space travel cheap.
Technological improvement is likely to make possible air-ship hotels, based either on solar-powered airplanes or large dirigibles. Underwater hotels, such as Hydropolis, expected to open in Dubai in 2009, will be built. On the ocean tourists will be welcomed by ever larger cruise ships and perhaps floating cities.
Negative impacts
Attracting a high volume of tourists can have negative impacts, such as the impact of 33 million tourists a year on the city of New York, or the potential to impact fragile environments, or the impact of the December 26, 2004 tsunami on the tourists themselves. The environment can be affected negatively by cruise ship pollution in many ways, including ballast water discharge, and by pollution from aircraft.
Tourism is vital for many countries such as U.A.E, Egypt, Greece, Thailand and many island nations such as Bahamas, Fiji, Maldives, Seychelles due to the large intake of money for businesses with their goods and services and the opportunity for employment in the service industries associated with tourism. These service industries include transportation services such as cruise ships and taxis, accommodation such as hotels and entertainment venues, and other hospitality industry services such as resorts.
Definition
Hunziker and Krapf, in 1941, defined tourism as "the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity." In 1976, the Tourism Society of England defined it as "Tourism is the temporary, short-term movement of people to destination outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during the stay at each destination. It includes movements for all purposes." In 1981, International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined Tourism in terms of particular activities selected by choice and undertaken outside the home environment.
The United Nations classified three forms of tourism in 1994 in its Recommendations on Tourism Statistics: Domestic tourism, which involves residents of the given country traveling only within this country; Inbound tourism, involving non-residents traveling in the given country; and Outbound tourism, involving residents traveling in another country.
The UN also derived different categories of tourism by combining the 3 basic forms of tourism: Internal tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and inbound tourism; National tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism; and International tourism, which consists of inbound tourism and outbound tourism. Intrabound tourism is a term coined by the Korea Tourism Organization and widely accepted in Korea. Intrabound tourism differs from domestic tourism in that the former encompasses policymaking and implementation of national tourism policies.
Recently, the tourism industry has shifted from the promotion of inbound tourism to the promotion of intrabound tourism because many countries are experiencing tough competition for inbound tourists. Some national policymakers have shifted their priority to the promotion of intrabound tourism to contribute to the local economy. Examples of such campaigns include "See America" in the United States, "Truly Asia" in Malaysia, "Get Going Canada" in Canada, "Wow Philippines" in the Philippines, "Uniquely Singapore" in Singapore, "100% Pure New Zealand" in New Zealand, "Amazing Thailand" in Thailand, "The Hidden Charm" in Vietnam and "Incredible India" in India.
World tourism statistics and rankings
Most visited countries
The World Tourism Organization reports the following ten countries as the most visited in 2007 by number of international travelers. When compared to 2006, Ukraine entered the top ten list, surpassing Russia, Austria and Mexico. Most of the top visited countries continue to be on the European continent.
International tourism receipts
International tourist receipts were USD 96.7 billion in 2007, up from USD 85.7 billion in 2006. When the export value of international passenger travel receipts is accounted for, total receipts in 2007 reached a record of USD 1.02 trillion or 3 billion a day.The World Tourism Organization reports the following 10 countries as the top ten tourism earners for the year 2007. It is noticeable that most of them are on the European continent, but the United States continues to be the top earner.
International tourism top spenders
The World Tourism Organization reports the following 10 countries as the top ten biggest spenders on international tourism for the year 2007. For the fifth year in a row, German tourists continue as the top spenders.A study by Dresdner Bank study forecasts that for 2008 Germans and Europeans in general will continue to be the top spenders because of the strength of the Euro against the US dollar, with strong demand for the US in favor of other destinations.
History
Wealthy people have always traveled to distant parts of the world to see great buildings and works of art, to learn new languages, to experience new cultures, and to taste different cuisines. As long ago as the time of the Roman Republic, places such as Baiae were popular coastal resorts for the rich. The word tourism was used by 1811 and tourist by 1840. In 1936 the League of Nations defined foreign tourist as someone travelling abroad for at least twenty-four hours. Its successor, the United Nations amended this definition in 1945 by including a maximum stay of six months.
Pre twentieth century
European tourism can be said to originate with the medieval pilgrimage. Although undertaken primarily for religious reasons, the pilgrims in the Canterbury Tales saw the experience as a holiday (the term itself being derived from the 'holy day' and its associated leisure activities). Pilgrimages created a variety of tourist aspects that still exist - bringing back souvenirs, obtaining credit with foreign banks (in medieval times utilizing international networks established by the Lombards), and making use of space available on existing forms of transport (such as the use of medieval English wine ships bound for Vigo by pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela). Religious and secular pilgrimages are still prevalent in modern tourism - such as to Lourdes or Knock in Ireland, Graceland and the grave of Jim Morrison in Père Lachaise Cemetery.
During the 17th century, it became fashionable in England to undertake a Grand Tour. The sons of the nobility and gentry were sent upon an extended tour of Europe as an educational experience. The 18th century was the golden age of the Grand Tour, and many of the fashionable visitors were painted at Rome by Pompeo Batoni.
Health tourism has long existed, but it was not until the eighteenth century that it became important. In England, it was associated with spas, places with supposedly health-giving mineral waters, treating diseases from gout to liver disorders and bronchitis. The most popular resorts were Bath, Cheltenham, Buxton, Harrogate, and Tunbridge Wells. Visits to take 'the waters' also allowed the visitors to attend balls and other entertainments. Continental Spas such as Carlsbad (Karlovy Vary) attracted many fashionable travellers by the nineteenth century.
Leisure travel
Leisure travel was associated with the industrialisation of United Kingdom – the first European country to promote leisure time to the increasing industrial population. Initially, this applied to the owners of the machinery of production, the economic oligarchy, the factory owners, and the traders. These comprised the new middle class. Cox & Kings were the first official travel company to be formed in 1758. Later, the working class could take advantage of leisure time.
The British origin of this new industry is reflected in many place names. At Nice, France, one of the first and best-established holiday resorts on the French Riviera, the long esplanade along the seafront is known to this day as the Promenade des Anglais; in many other historic resorts in continental Europe, old well-established palace hotels have names like the Hotel Bristol, the Hotel Carlton or the Hotel Majestic - reflecting the dominance of English customers.
Many tourists do leisure tourism in the tropics both in the summer and winter. It is often done in places such as Cuba, The Dominican Republic, Thailand, North
Winter tourism
Winter sports were largely invented by the British leisured classes, initially at the Swiss village of Zermatt (Valais), and St Moritz in 1864. The first packaged winter sports holidays took place in 1902 at Adelboden, Switzerland. Winter sports were a natural answer for a leisured class looking for amusement during the coldest season.
Major ski resorts are located in various mainland European countries, Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Korea, Chile and Argentina.
Mass tourism
Mass travel could only develop with improvements in technology allowed the transport of large numbers of people in a short space of time to places of leisure interest, and greater numbers of people began to enjoy the benefits of leisure time.
In the United States, the first great seaside resort, in the European style, was Atlantic City, New Jersey, and Long Island.
In Continental Europe, early resorts included Ostend (for the people of Brussels), and Boulogne-sur-Mer (Pas-de-Calais) and Deauville (Calvados) (for Parisians), and Heiligendamm (founded 1797 as the first seaside resort at the Baltic Sea).
Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.
Great Barrier Reef, Australia is one of the most visited places of diving tourists.
The Hagia Sophia in İstanbul, Turkey.
Machu Picchu in Cuzco, Peru, one of the most visited destinations in South America.
Red Square in Moscow, Russia.
Recent developments
There has been an upmarket trend in the tourism over the last few decades, especially in Europe where international travel for short breaks is common. Tourists have higher levels of disposable income and greater leisure time and they are also better-educated and have more sophisticated tastes. There is now a demand for a better quality products, which has resulted in a fragmenting of the mass market for beach vacations; people want more specialised versions, such as Club 18-30, quieter resorts, family-oriented holidays, or niche market-targeted destination hotels.
The developments in technology and transport infrastructure, such as jumbo jets and low-cost airlines, and more accessible airports have made many types of tourism more affordable. There have also been changes in lifestyle, such as retiree-age people who sustain year round tourism. This is facilitated by internet sales of tourism products. Some sites have now started to offer dynamic packaging, in which an inclusive price is quoted for a tailor-made package requested by the customer upon impulse.
There have been a few setbacks in tourism, such as the September 11, 2001 attacks and terrorist threats to tourist destinations such as Bali and European cities. Some of the tourist destinations, including the beach resorts of Cancún have lost popularity due to shifting tastes. In this context, the excessive building and environmental destruction often associated with traditional "sun and beach" tourism may contribute to a destination's saturation and subsequent decline. Spain's Costa Brava, a popular 1960s and 1970s beach location is now facing a crisis in its tourism industry.
On December 26, 2004 a tsunami, caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake hit Asian countries bordering the Indian Ocean, and also the Maldives. Thousands of lives were lost, and many tourists died. This, together with the vast clean-up operation in place, has stopped or severely hampered tourism to the area.
The terms tourism and travel are sometimes used interchangeably. In this context travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited by tourists.
Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. One of the most famous natural attractions in the world.
Medical tourism
When there is a significant price difference between countries for a given medical procedure particularly in South East Asia, India and Eastern Europe or where there are different regulatory regimes between countries in relation to particular medical procedures (eg dentistry) travelling to take advantage of the price or regulatory differences is often referred to as "medical tourism".
Educational tourism
Educational tourism developed because of the growing popularity of teaching and learning of knowledge, and enhancing technical competency outside the classroom environment. In the educational tourism, the main focus of the tour or leisure activity includes visitation of another country to learn about the culture of the visited country (Student Exchange Program and Study Tour) or to work and apply their learning inside the classroom in different environment (International Practicum Training Program).
Other developments
Creative tourism Creative tourism has existed as a form of cultural tourism since the early beginnings of tourism itself. Its European roots date back to the time of the Grand Tour, which saw the sons of aristocratic families traveling for the purpose of (mostly interactive) educational experiences. More recently, creative tourism has been given its own name by Crispin Raymond and Greg Richards, who as a member of the Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS) has directed a number of projects for the European Commission, including cultural tourism, crafts tourism or sustainable tourism. They have defined "creative tourism" as tourism related to the active participation of travelers in the culture of the host community, through interactive workshops and informal learning experiences.
Meanwhile, the concept of creative tourism has been picked up by high-profile organizations such as UNESCO, who through the Creative Cities Network have endorsed creative tourism as an engaged, authentic experience that promotes an active understanding of the specific cultural features of a place.
More recently, creative tourism has gained popularity as a form of cultural tourism, drawing on active participation by travelers in the culture of the host communities they visit. Several countries offer examples of this type of tourism development, including the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy and New Zealand.
Dark tourism One emerging area of special interest tourism has been identified by Lennon and Foley (2000) as "dark" tourism. This type of tourism involves visits to "dark" sites such as battlegrounds, scenes of horrific crimes or acts of genocide, for example concentration camps. Dark tourism poses severe ethical and moral dilemmas: should these sites be available for visitation and, if so, what should the nature of the publicity involved be. Dark tourism remains a small niche market driven by varied motivations, such as mourning, remembrance, macabre curiosity or even entertainment. Its early origins are rooted in fairgrounds and medieval fairs.
Growth
International tourism receipts in 2005
The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) forecasts that international tourism will continue growing at the average annual rate of 4 %. By 2020 Europe will remain the most popular destination, but its share will drop from 60% in 1995 to 46%. Long-haul will grow slightly faster than intraregional travel and by 2020 its share will increase from 18% in 1995 to 24%.
With the advent of e-commerce, tourism products have become one of the most traded items on the internet. Tourism products and services have been made available through intermediaries, although tourism providers (hotels, airlines, etc.) can sell their services directly. This has put pressure on intermediaries from both on-line and traditional shops.
It has been suggested there is a strong correlation between Tourism expenditure per capita and the degree to which countries play in the global context. Not only as a result of the important economic contribution of the tourism industry, but also as an indicator of the degree of confidence with which global citizens leverage the resources of the globe for the benefit of their local economies. This is why any projections of growth in tourism may serve as an indication of the relative influence that each country will exercise in the future.
Space tourism is expected to "take off" in the first quarter of the 21st century, although compared with traditional destinations the number of tourists in orbit will remain low until technologies such as a space elevator make space travel cheap.
Technological improvement is likely to make possible air-ship hotels, based either on solar-powered airplanes or large dirigibles. Underwater hotels, such as Hydropolis, expected to open in Dubai in 2009, will be built. On the ocean tourists will be welcomed by ever larger cruise ships and perhaps floating cities.
Negative impacts
Attracting a high volume of tourists can have negative impacts, such as the impact of 33 million tourists a year on the city of New York, or the potential to impact fragile environments, or the impact of the December 26, 2004 tsunami on the tourists themselves. The environment can be affected negatively by cruise ship pollution in many ways, including ballast water discharge, and by pollution from aircraft.
TOURIST INDUSTRY
INTRODUCTION
Tourist Industry, multi-sectoral activity that requires inputs from many industries—agriculture, construction, and manufacturing—and from both the public and private sectors to provide the goods and services used by tourists. It has no clearly determined boundaries and no physical output; it is a provider of services, which in range will vary between countries; for example, in Singapore shopping is a major tourist activity but not entertainment; in London, both shopping and entertainment are important inputs to the tourism sector.
TOURIST STATISTICS
On March 4, 1993, the United Nations Statistical Commission adopted the recommendations of the World Tourism Organization (WTO) on tourism statistics. The officially accepted definition is: “Tourism comprises the activities of people travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environments for more than one consecutive day for leisure, business, and other purposes”. The recommendations distinguish the following categories of tourism. (1) Domestic tourism involving residents of a country visiting within that country, for example, a resident of Sheffield visiting London; (2) inbound tourism, involving non-residents of a country “A”, visiting country “A”, for example, Japanese tourists coming to England; (3) outbound tourism, involving residents of a country visiting other countries, as in a resident of Rome, Italy, visiting Brussels, Belgium. The three basic classifications can be further combined to derive the following categories of tourism: (4) internal tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and inbound tourism: (5) national tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism: and (6) international tourism, which comprises inbound and outbound tourism.
THE TOURIST
All types of traveller engaged in tourism are described as visitors, a term that constitutes the basic concept for the whole system of tourism statistics; the term visitor may be further subdivided into same-day visitors and tourists as follows: (1) visitors are defined as those people who travel to a country other than that in which they have their usual residence but outside their usual environment for a period not exceeding 12 months and whose main purpose of visit is other than the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited; (2) same-day visitors are visitors who do not spend the night in a collective or private accommodation in the country visited; while (3) tourists are visitors who stay in the country visited for at least one night.
These new definitions will, when used by countries, greatly improve the current quality of tourism statistics, which are not easy to analyse due to the inconsistencies in definitions and classifications used. With these limitations in mind tourism is still acknowledged to be an activity of global economic importance.
GLOBAL SCALE OF TOURISM
In 1994 the WTO estimated that there were 528.4 million tourist arrivals which generated US$321,466 million in receipts; it further predicted that by the year 2000 tourism would become the major global economic activity, surpassing even the trade in oil and manufactured goods. For developed and developing countries alike, it has become a major source of foreign exchange earnings, a generator of personal and corporate incomes, a creator of employment, and a contributor to government revenues. The volume of tourist activity on a global basis is unevenly distributed, with the WTO estimating in 1992 that 62 per cent of tourism arrivals were between developed countries. This statistic illustrates the fact that tourism is enjoyed essentially by the residents of developed countries who have the necessary disposable incomes, available leisure time, and the motivation to travel.
HISTORY OF TOURISM
Tourism in the Galápagos IslandsTourists are able not only to see but to touch giant tortoises at the Charles Darwin Station on Santa Cruz, one of the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador. The islands’ unique wildlife, which influenced the thinking of Darwin, now attracts tourists from around the world. The national authorities face the problem of reconciling the immediate benefits of tourism with the need to conserve the islands’ plants and animals for posterity.
Tourism can be recognized as long as people have travelled; the narrative of Marco Polo in the 13th century; the “grand tour” of the British aristocracy to Europe in the 18th century; and the journeys of David Livingstone through Africa in the 19th century are all examples of early tourism. Thomas Cook is popularly regarded as the founder of inclusive tours with his use of a chartered train in 1841 to transport tourists from Loughborough to Leicester. Before the 1950s, tourism in Europe was mainly a domestic activity with some international travel between countries, mainly within continental Europe. In the period of recovery following World War II, a combination of circumstances provided an impetus to international travel. Among the important contributing factors were the growing number of people in employment, the increase in real disposable incomes and available leisure time, and changing social attitudes towards leisure and work. These factors combined to stimulate the latent demand for foreign travel and holidays. The emergence of specialist tour operators who organized inclusive holidays by purchasing transport, accommodation, and related services and selling these at a single price, brought foreign holidays within the price-range of a new and growing group of consumers. The “package” or “inclusive” tour democratized travel in Europe; foreign holidays were no longer the preserve of the affluent and socially elite classes.
MORE RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
The economies of scale which made foreign travel possible for so many people also broadened the travel horizon. As technological developments in the airline business produced bigger and faster aeroplanes, it also had the effect of shrinking distances in terms of journey times. Today, a 400-passenger aeroplane can fly non-stop from London to Johannesburg in 11 hours; or from London to Bangkok in 14 hours. Long-haul holiday destinations are now realistic in relation to journey times and attractive in terms of price as air fares are, relatively, much cheaper than they were 15 years ago. Long-haul holiday travel is becoming a growing sector in international tourism demand.
In addition to holiday-based tourism there is also an important business tourism market. Business travellers use transport, accommodation, and services in similar fashion to holiday-travellers. However, as their expenditure is usually a business rather than a personal expense, they have a shorter length of stay than holidaymakers but tend to have a much higher expenditure per visit. A specialist submarket, the Meetings, Incentives, Convention, and Exhibition (MICE) sector has developed and is represented in many countries of the world. Quality convention and exhibition centres can be found in virtually every major city in the world. Asian cities, for example, Jakarta, Hong Kong, and Singapore, have recently developed state-of-the-art facilities, competing favourably with established centres in Europe and North America. Conventions and exhibitions attract visitors from different parts of the world who often would not normally visit a given destination. In 1994 this market was estimated to generate US$97 billion in revenue globally.
The rapid growth of international tourism is reflected in the growth in membership of the WTO, which in 1995 had 125 country members and 250 affiliate members. With few exceptions most countries will have established a National Tourism Organization (NTO), usually funded directly by government, for example, the British Tourist Authority, Australian Tourist Commission, and South African Tourist Board. These NTOs are the focus of government and private sector activity to represent abroad the tourist assets of the country. Government support for NTOs is based on the need to secure the economic benefits that tourism can generate. The importance of tourism as an earner of foreign exchange is seen in India and Thailand where tourism is the prime source of foreign exchange revenue. In labour terms it is probably the major source of employment in the United Kingdom. As a stimulus to regional development it has been a major factor in the Gold Coast area in Queensland, Australia, and in places such as KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.
The growth of tourism on an international scale has brought with it problems, however, particularly related to its impact on societies and the natural environment. The uncritical acceptance of the benefits of tourism prevalent in the 1970s began to give way to a more balanced approach to the role of tourism in development, particularly related to its non-economic impacts. Tourism planners began to include socio-economic and environmental factors in their work; concerns about overdevelopment of coastal regions in parts of the Mediterranean, poor resort planning, and links between tourism and prostitution in some Asian cities were all issues that were seen as negative features. By the 1990s economic advantages were no longer the only criteria to support the development of tourism; increasingly, development is linked to the concept of sustainability.
Sustainable tourism can be defined as “a process which allows development to take place without degrading or depleting the resources which made the development possible”. Sustainability in tourism as a concept is often referred to as “ecotourism”, “green tourism”, or “responsible tourism”. Whatever its description it is seen as a means of recognizing that the Earth has finite resources and in tourism as in other sectors, there are limits to development, particularly in site-specific locations. Current concerns are to be found in tourist usage of game parks in Kenya, deterioration of the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, and damage caused by irresponsible trekking in mountain areas of Nepal. The interdependence between tourism, culture, and the environment, has become a critical consideration in the formulation of tourism policies. Sustainability applies not only to small-scale tourism projects; it is equally, if not more important in areas where there is high-volume tourism, as in the Mediterranean basin countries where environmental pollution is of major concern.
There is no reason to believe that tourism will decline as an international activity in the future. All the indications are that it will increase to become a significant feature of economic and social development in many countries. The challenge, then, is to ensure that such growth can be accommodated within a sustainable framework.
Tourist Industry, multi-sectoral activity that requires inputs from many industries—agriculture, construction, and manufacturing—and from both the public and private sectors to provide the goods and services used by tourists. It has no clearly determined boundaries and no physical output; it is a provider of services, which in range will vary between countries; for example, in Singapore shopping is a major tourist activity but not entertainment; in London, both shopping and entertainment are important inputs to the tourism sector.
TOURIST STATISTICS
On March 4, 1993, the United Nations Statistical Commission adopted the recommendations of the World Tourism Organization (WTO) on tourism statistics. The officially accepted definition is: “Tourism comprises the activities of people travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environments for more than one consecutive day for leisure, business, and other purposes”. The recommendations distinguish the following categories of tourism. (1) Domestic tourism involving residents of a country visiting within that country, for example, a resident of Sheffield visiting London; (2) inbound tourism, involving non-residents of a country “A”, visiting country “A”, for example, Japanese tourists coming to England; (3) outbound tourism, involving residents of a country visiting other countries, as in a resident of Rome, Italy, visiting Brussels, Belgium. The three basic classifications can be further combined to derive the following categories of tourism: (4) internal tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and inbound tourism: (5) national tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism: and (6) international tourism, which comprises inbound and outbound tourism.
THE TOURIST
All types of traveller engaged in tourism are described as visitors, a term that constitutes the basic concept for the whole system of tourism statistics; the term visitor may be further subdivided into same-day visitors and tourists as follows: (1) visitors are defined as those people who travel to a country other than that in which they have their usual residence but outside their usual environment for a period not exceeding 12 months and whose main purpose of visit is other than the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited; (2) same-day visitors are visitors who do not spend the night in a collective or private accommodation in the country visited; while (3) tourists are visitors who stay in the country visited for at least one night.
These new definitions will, when used by countries, greatly improve the current quality of tourism statistics, which are not easy to analyse due to the inconsistencies in definitions and classifications used. With these limitations in mind tourism is still acknowledged to be an activity of global economic importance.
GLOBAL SCALE OF TOURISM
In 1994 the WTO estimated that there were 528.4 million tourist arrivals which generated US$321,466 million in receipts; it further predicted that by the year 2000 tourism would become the major global economic activity, surpassing even the trade in oil and manufactured goods. For developed and developing countries alike, it has become a major source of foreign exchange earnings, a generator of personal and corporate incomes, a creator of employment, and a contributor to government revenues. The volume of tourist activity on a global basis is unevenly distributed, with the WTO estimating in 1992 that 62 per cent of tourism arrivals were between developed countries. This statistic illustrates the fact that tourism is enjoyed essentially by the residents of developed countries who have the necessary disposable incomes, available leisure time, and the motivation to travel.
HISTORY OF TOURISM
Tourism in the Galápagos IslandsTourists are able not only to see but to touch giant tortoises at the Charles Darwin Station on Santa Cruz, one of the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador. The islands’ unique wildlife, which influenced the thinking of Darwin, now attracts tourists from around the world. The national authorities face the problem of reconciling the immediate benefits of tourism with the need to conserve the islands’ plants and animals for posterity.
Tourism can be recognized as long as people have travelled; the narrative of Marco Polo in the 13th century; the “grand tour” of the British aristocracy to Europe in the 18th century; and the journeys of David Livingstone through Africa in the 19th century are all examples of early tourism. Thomas Cook is popularly regarded as the founder of inclusive tours with his use of a chartered train in 1841 to transport tourists from Loughborough to Leicester. Before the 1950s, tourism in Europe was mainly a domestic activity with some international travel between countries, mainly within continental Europe. In the period of recovery following World War II, a combination of circumstances provided an impetus to international travel. Among the important contributing factors were the growing number of people in employment, the increase in real disposable incomes and available leisure time, and changing social attitudes towards leisure and work. These factors combined to stimulate the latent demand for foreign travel and holidays. The emergence of specialist tour operators who organized inclusive holidays by purchasing transport, accommodation, and related services and selling these at a single price, brought foreign holidays within the price-range of a new and growing group of consumers. The “package” or “inclusive” tour democratized travel in Europe; foreign holidays were no longer the preserve of the affluent and socially elite classes.
MORE RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
The economies of scale which made foreign travel possible for so many people also broadened the travel horizon. As technological developments in the airline business produced bigger and faster aeroplanes, it also had the effect of shrinking distances in terms of journey times. Today, a 400-passenger aeroplane can fly non-stop from London to Johannesburg in 11 hours; or from London to Bangkok in 14 hours. Long-haul holiday destinations are now realistic in relation to journey times and attractive in terms of price as air fares are, relatively, much cheaper than they were 15 years ago. Long-haul holiday travel is becoming a growing sector in international tourism demand.
In addition to holiday-based tourism there is also an important business tourism market. Business travellers use transport, accommodation, and services in similar fashion to holiday-travellers. However, as their expenditure is usually a business rather than a personal expense, they have a shorter length of stay than holidaymakers but tend to have a much higher expenditure per visit. A specialist submarket, the Meetings, Incentives, Convention, and Exhibition (MICE) sector has developed and is represented in many countries of the world. Quality convention and exhibition centres can be found in virtually every major city in the world. Asian cities, for example, Jakarta, Hong Kong, and Singapore, have recently developed state-of-the-art facilities, competing favourably with established centres in Europe and North America. Conventions and exhibitions attract visitors from different parts of the world who often would not normally visit a given destination. In 1994 this market was estimated to generate US$97 billion in revenue globally.
The rapid growth of international tourism is reflected in the growth in membership of the WTO, which in 1995 had 125 country members and 250 affiliate members. With few exceptions most countries will have established a National Tourism Organization (NTO), usually funded directly by government, for example, the British Tourist Authority, Australian Tourist Commission, and South African Tourist Board. These NTOs are the focus of government and private sector activity to represent abroad the tourist assets of the country. Government support for NTOs is based on the need to secure the economic benefits that tourism can generate. The importance of tourism as an earner of foreign exchange is seen in India and Thailand where tourism is the prime source of foreign exchange revenue. In labour terms it is probably the major source of employment in the United Kingdom. As a stimulus to regional development it has been a major factor in the Gold Coast area in Queensland, Australia, and in places such as KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.
The growth of tourism on an international scale has brought with it problems, however, particularly related to its impact on societies and the natural environment. The uncritical acceptance of the benefits of tourism prevalent in the 1970s began to give way to a more balanced approach to the role of tourism in development, particularly related to its non-economic impacts. Tourism planners began to include socio-economic and environmental factors in their work; concerns about overdevelopment of coastal regions in parts of the Mediterranean, poor resort planning, and links between tourism and prostitution in some Asian cities were all issues that were seen as negative features. By the 1990s economic advantages were no longer the only criteria to support the development of tourism; increasingly, development is linked to the concept of sustainability.
Sustainable tourism can be defined as “a process which allows development to take place without degrading or depleting the resources which made the development possible”. Sustainability in tourism as a concept is often referred to as “ecotourism”, “green tourism”, or “responsible tourism”. Whatever its description it is seen as a means of recognizing that the Earth has finite resources and in tourism as in other sectors, there are limits to development, particularly in site-specific locations. Current concerns are to be found in tourist usage of game parks in Kenya, deterioration of the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, and damage caused by irresponsible trekking in mountain areas of Nepal. The interdependence between tourism, culture, and the environment, has become a critical consideration in the formulation of tourism policies. Sustainability applies not only to small-scale tourism projects; it is equally, if not more important in areas where there is high-volume tourism, as in the Mediterranean basin countries where environmental pollution is of major concern.
There is no reason to believe that tourism will decline as an international activity in the future. All the indications are that it will increase to become a significant feature of economic and social development in many countries. The challenge, then, is to ensure that such growth can be accommodated within a sustainable framework.
TRANSPORT
INTRODUCTION
Transport conveyance of people or property from one place to another. Modern commercial transport includes all the means and facilities used in the movement of people or property, and all services involved in the receipt, delivery, and handling of such property. The commercial transport of people is classified as passenger service and that of property as freight service. Transport is one of the largest industries in the world. See Also Public Transport.
The early refinement of water transport was stimulated by the tendency of populations to centre on seacoasts or navigable waterways. The ancient Romans used vessels equipped with sails and several banks of oars to transport their armies to Carthage and other theatres of operation. Improvements were subsequently made in shipbuilding and in the rigging and manipulation of sails. With these changes, along with the adoption of the mariner's compass, sailing in the open sea out of sight of land became feasible. See Ships and Shipbuilding.
Overland transport developed at a much slower pace, although the Romans built good roads for military purposes between garrison centres and ports. For centuries the customary means of travel, which were restricted to riding on animals' backs or on animal-drawn carts or sleds (see Carriage; Coach), rarely exceeded a rate of 16 km/h (10 mph). Overland transport showed little improvement until the 1820s, when the British engineer George Stephenson adapted the steam engine to power a locomotive and initiated, between Stockton and Darlington, in north-east England, the first steam railway.
TRANSPORT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Over the course of history five modes of transport have been used in the United Kingdom: water, road, rail, air, and pipeline.
Water
Rivers were the main means of communication in the United Kingdom until the mid-18th century. During the 16th century several Acts of Parliament were passed aimed at improving river navigation and by 1750 some 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of navigable waterway were available, including local “cuts”, and there were some locks. Towns located on river estuaries or on the coast were linked by coastal shipping. The first true canal was built at Newry, in Ireland, in about 1740 and remained in use until 1930. In England the Sankey Canal in Lancashire, connecting to the River Mersey, was built between 1757 and 1773. As with the Newry canal, a main purpose was transport of coal. By 1776 James Brindley had built the Bridgewater canal from Worsley in Lancashire to Manchester. The canal was so named because it was built for the Duke of Bridgewater to move coal from his Worsley collieries. Thus began the “Canal Age”: by 1850 there were some 1,450 km (900 mi) of navigable water in Ireland and 6,560 km (4,100 mi) in the rest of Britain. Virtually all the goods of the early Industrial Revolution were transported by water, either along the coast or along canals and navigable rivers. Horses provided the motive power on the canals most of the time, although human power was used in some circumstances, for example for passage through tunnels. Among the great canal engineers alongside James Brindley were William Jessop and Thomas Telford. The American Robert Fulton also played a small part in the construction of British canals. In spite of the advent of railways, canals were still used to transport much of the heavy, bulky goods until World War II. Some canals were bought up by the railways and used as rail routes.
Steamships
The American inventor Robert Fulton built the first efficient steamboat, the Clermont. The Clermont made its maiden trip in 1807 on the Hudson River from New York to Albany, accomplishing the round-trip distance of about 480 km (300 mi) in 62 hours. It was fitted with British machinery and was followed in 1812 by Henry Bell's Comet, which sailed on the Clyde. The first ship to employ steam propulsion in a transatlantic crossing was the American vessel Savannah in 1819, although sail was used during part of the 29-day voyage. By 1840 a steamship could make six trips between America and Europe in the time it took a sailing ship to make three. The so-called clipper, a fast and beautiful type of sailing vessel, was the last stand of the commercial sailing ship. It was built between 1845 and 1851, but could not compete after 1851 with the progressively larger and faster steamships.
Modern Vessels
The diesel engine has given modern ships more economical operation and has largely replaced the steam engine. The use of nuclear power in ships is today largely confined to military vessels. Other developments in modern navigation are the hovercraft (see Air Cushion Vehicle), a vessel that rides on a cushion of air a few centimetres above the water or land; and the hydrofoil, a vessel equipped with wing-like planes or struts that, at a certain speed, lift the hull out of the water to attain an even greater speed. Until the advent of the jet airliner around 1960, the large ocean liner provided the means for intercontinental passenger travel.
Diesel-powered vessels still perform a valuable role in linking islands to the mainland, as off the western coast of Scotland, or in Greece.
Road
The roads that had been built by the Romans in England (see Roman Roads) were allowed to deteriorate and by the beginning of the 18th century British roads largely consisted of dirt tracks. However, the need for better communications was realized and the concept of toll roads, or turnpikes, was introduced. The first of these was the improvement of the Great North Road, now the A1, connecting London and York. It was upgraded as a result of a 1663 Act of Parliament. Little more was done until 1706, when “Turnpike Trusts” were introduced, effectively placing road development on a commercial basis. This began an era of major road improvement and road building, which was to last until the first part of the 19th century. By 1750 some 13 strategic turnpikes radiated from London and were of sufficient quality to bring in the era of the stagecoach. Many new roads were built in the period up to 1772 and stagecoach journey times were reduced. At the beginning of the stagecoach era it took 12 days to travel from London to Scotland, but this was reduced to nine days and less by using relays of horses. By 1770 light post-chaise vehicles could do the journey in five days.
Political and military considerations led to the first development of roads in the more northern regions of Scotland. General George Wade started this work in 1725 and by the time he left the area in 1740 some 400 km (250 mi) of new road had been completed. By 1767 the figure had risen to nearly 1,300 km (800 mi).
A further important influence was the decision of the Post Office in 1784 to replace post horses by mail coaches, firstly on the London to Bristol service. As the service expanded in the latter part of the 18th century and first part of the 19th century, it brought with it the demand for more and better roads. Such engineers took up the challenge created by this as Thomas Telford, who realized the need for a proper foundation for the roads. In 1816 John Loudon McAdam proposed the concept of a road surface made up of small pieces of granite bound together by dust, which acted as rudimentary cement. Telford's first major road-building programme was the Carlisle to Glasgow road, now the A74/M74, completed in about 1820. Telford then turned his attention to the Shrewsbury to Holyhead road, the A5, including his Menai suspension bridge, which was completed in 1826. Around this time many new turnpikes were initiated, and by 1835 some 3,300 stagecoaches were in use. It was possible to travel from London to major cities up to about 200 km (125 mi) away in a day, and there were 40,000 km (2,500 mi) of roads in England and Wales.
The advent of the railway had an adverse effect on the stagecoach and many turnpikes began to deteriorate, as the trusts were unable to raise sufficient income for their upkeep. In 1888 an Act of Parliament was passed that transferred responsibility for roads to local government authorities. It came on the eve of the next era of road transport, that of the motorcar.
The car brought with it a demand for smoother road surfaces, which was achieved by coating the McAdam-type granite roads with tar to give a “tarmacadam” surface. The comfort of travel was further improved with the introduction of the pneumatic tyre. This was originally patented by Robert William Thompson in 1846 but was made practical by John Boyd Dunlop in 1882. Road travel was now as comfortable as rail travel and it was soon realized that it conferred the additional advantage of flexibility. As the 20th century progressed, goods as well as passengers were increasingly moved by road. In the first half of the century many roads were improved, especially by building bypasses around towns to reduce traffic congestion. However, it was realized by 1950 that these measures would not be adequate for the vast increase of road traffic anticipated in the second half of the century. To provide for this, the motorway was introduced. The first major section of motorway in Britain was the southern end of the M1, opened in 1960, although a short length of the M5 near Preston preceded it. Road transport now represents the major mode of transport for overland passengers and goods.
Rail
Before the advent of the steam locomotive there were a large number of horse-drawn tramways, especially in coal-mining areas. These provided a base for the first true railway developments. Although there were earlier experimenters, it fell to George Stephenson to develop the first practical steam locomotive and apply it commercially on the Stockton to Darlington railway, opened in 1825. He followed this up with the famous Rocket locomotive of 1829, designed in conjunction with his son, Robert Stephenson for the Liverpool to Manchester railways. In 1830 Robert Stephenson produced a new locomotive, the Planet, which established the definitive steam locomotive.
Many railway proposals were made in the 1830s. These included the London to Birmingham railway, opened in 1838, which formed part of a network linking London with Liverpool, Manchester, and Preston. Isambard Kingdom Brunel was appointed engineer on the London to Southampton, later London and South Western railway in 1831, the line being completed in 1840. Brunel chose to use a wider gauge than the standard of the other railways, which caused problems until an Act of Parliament in 1846 established a standard gauge for all new railways. By 1844 there were about 3,600 km (2,240 mi) of railway of which about one-tenth was broad-gauge. This had extended to nearly 10,000 km (6,000 mi) by 1850, and the basic national network had been established. The line from London along the west coast reached Aberdeen in that year, as did the east coast line, using ferries over the rivers Forth and Tay.
An interesting consequence of rail development was disruption of the mail coach system as operators went out of business because of lack of passengers. Mail was taken by rail from as early as 1838 but even by 1850 the rail network was not as extensive as the roads. Rail expansion continued well into the 20th century and the network finally reached most corners of the nation, having a length of over 65,000 km (4,000 mi).
Technical developments during the latter part of the 19th century included electric traction, first used publicly on Volk's railway along the Brighton seafront in 1879. This was followed in 1890 by electrification of the London underground railway system.
From about World War II the railway network became outdated, unreliable and inefficient. Diesel traction to replace steam engines had been introduced experimentally in Germany as early as 1912, and from 1950 onwards began to replace steam on British railways, a process completed by the mid-1960s. Passenger and goods traffic fell with the increasing use of cars and lorries. A major decision was taken after the 1963 report by Lord Beeching, which proposed concentrating the railways into the main routes. There was a drastic reduction of branch lines, removing about three-quarters of the rail mileage. A programme of electrification of main lines was introduced, and still continues. In spite of many problems, rail still provides fast, comfortable inter-city travel and somewhat less comfortable travel for hundreds of thousands who commute daily into the larger cities. However, much of the freight traffic has been lost to the roads, which has put a major financial burden on the system.
Air
Air transport is the most rapidly developing form of modern transport. Although the American aviation pioneers Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first flight in a heavier-than-air craft at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903, it was not until after World War I that air transport achieved prominence generally. (see Aeroplane; Aviation).
At this time early passenger- and mail-carrying flights commenced in Europe, while in the United States the emphasis was on mail alone. In the period between World War I and World War II, commercial flying was extended and many plans were made for a worldwide network. However, early operations were vulnerable to the weather, and therefore somewhat unreliable and expensive. Thus air transport was not significant until more regular services were introduced in the United States, just before World War II. The technological development of aircraft during World War II changed the situation and from 1945 onwards passenger-carrying flights became more important. Piston-engined propeller-driven airliners became larger, more reliable and more efficient. The significant change came with the introduction of the jet-powered airliner, initially as early as 1952 in Britain, with the ill-fated DeHavilland Comet, but more generally in 1958, with the American Boeing 707. The speed, comfort and economy of the aircraft rapidly attracted long-distance passengers from the ocean liners, and air soon proved to be more convenient for shorter distances as well. A further advance was made about 1970 with the introduction of longer-range, large-capacity wide-bodied airliners, exemplified by the Boeing 747 or “jumbo-jet”. Later versions can carry upwards of 500 passengers, or a somewhat smaller number over distances of about 13,000 km (8,000 mi). The advent of the supersonic Concorde airliner in the 1970s has not significantly changed the pattern of air transport, since it is only for the few who can afford the high fares.
Air travel is the most popular form of passenger travel for distances in excess of 800 km (500 mi). Cargo carriage by air is growing, but it is still a relatively small part of the total operation. See Air Transport Industry.
Pipelines
Although pipelines for water have been used since ancient times, the other applications are relatively recent. Significant amongst them in the United Kingdom is a national network for the conveyance of natural gas. There are also local oil delivery systems. Pipelines are of major importance in some countries. In the United Sates, oil, liquefied gas and pulverized coal are some of the products transported by pipeline. Although they transport only liquid products, pipelines were responsible in 1990 for about 20 per cent of the total freight shipped in the United States.
INTERMODAL TRANSPORT
Moving people or commodities in the same closed unit or container over two or more different modes of transport is known as intermodal transport.
Freight Service
Routed through rail, roads, ships, or aeroplanes, a freight container is locked and sealed at origin, and the contents are not disturbed until the seal is broken by the consignee when the freight is unloaded at its destination; only one bill of lading or air waybill is issued. If foreign countries are involved, the freight moves under international treaties, which facilitate inspection by customs at national border points before the final destination is reached.
Inland Terminals
The essential element in intermodal transport is the lorry that picks up or delivers the freight at its origin and destination. A ship or an aeroplane cannot back up to a door at a store, factory, or warehouse, nor can rail rolling stock, except where industrial track is provided. Some airlines are using containers that are interchangeable with road carriers, but not with a ship or rail container. An economic advantage of the aeroplane, not yet fully explored, is the ability to make strategically situated inland cities major export-import centres, and this capability can be implemented with interchangeable containers. This involves picking up or delivering foreign air cargo at an inland point under a single air waybill or bill of lading. Such inland air terminal points now relate to their surrounding regions much as ocean ports have for centuries.
Containerization
So-called roll-on/roll-off container ships take entire articulated lorries, with their trailers. Rigid conformity is not necessary, because any vehicle with wheels can be moved aboard and tied down. This type of ship has proved efficient on relatively short runs, such as across the English Channel between Great Britain and Belgium, France, or the Netherlands. In contrast, many of the so-called lift-on/lift-off ships, for example, cannot interchange their containers with similar ships of another company because of differences in box sizes and structures. These discrepancies in turn affect the road carriers equipped for specialized types of containers and limit them to certain ships.
In an all-container ship, leading costs are approximately 1/20 that of a conventional ship of similar size. A container ship can discharge and load cargo in approximately 13 hours, compared with 84 hours for a conventional ship, thus affording faster turn-round time. In general, 500 tonnes per gang-hour can be handled with containerization, whereas 25 tonnes per gang-hour is a good average with conventional break-bulk methods.
LASH
Among other variations in intermodal transport is LASH (lighter aboard ship). In this method, a parent ship carries detachable lighters, or barges, with the ship standing out in the stream while the lighters are shunted between ship and shore. This is advantageous where shallow water exists at a port and the conventional ship is unable to dock in the usual manner. Regardless of the type of port, the turn-round time on these ships can be as little as 8 hours.
Advantages and Disadvantages
In intermodal freight transport the container is locked against pilfering and sealed against the weather, usual packing requirements are relaxed, and the freight is billed as a volume shipment. Interchange of material is expedited, and containers can be used for storage; some terminals are fitted with electrical outlets for maintaining refrigerated containers. Damage claims on container cargo have been found to be much lower, and pilfering has been almost eliminated. Intermodal efficiency and economy can be attained particularly well in marine transport.
There have been difficulties in implementing the labour-saving costs of intermodal freight transport. Among these have been initial opposition by labour; the initial cost of specialized equipment; the installation costs of terminals for container operations; and foreign exchange difficulties on shipments for which international treaties have not been executed.
REGULATORY AGENCIES
In many countries of Western Europe, some rail, steamship, and air transport facilities are government-owned. Road carriers are nationalized only when operated in conjunction with a rail or water carrier. In France, privately owned public road carriers observe rules and regulations that differ from those for road carriers operated in conjunction with railways. Privately owned public carriers are regulated in all nations, with the minister of transport performing this function in most European countries. In the United States, Congress has created specialized agencies for this purpose.
In the United Kingdom the Department of Transport is responsible for regulation of transport, although in some cases this is delegated to other authorities. For example, the Civil Aviation Authority is charged with the promulgation of air safety regulations, including the examination, inspection, certification, and rating of aircraft and flight crew. It oversees all safety matters relating to manufacture, operation, and maintenance of aircraft and all flight inspections of air-navigation facilities, and provides for the enforcement of safety regulations.
Transport Economics
The transport industry is subject to certain economic laws. The law of increasing returns asserts that expenditures do not increase in the same proportion as revenues when the volume of business increases. Once a transport system is established with fixed capital, an expansion in the volume of shipments causes operating expenses to rise, but has little effect on constant expenditures and results in decreased expense per unit. This holds true as long as unused plant capacity is available—that is, until, for instance, double tracking on a railway is necessary, or, for a road carrier, increased equipment and terminal facilities are required. In each mode of transport the relationship of constant to variable expenses depends on its physical equipment and the nature of its operation.
The law of joint cost involves the production of two or more products from a single operation. The haulage of railway freight wagons, passenger carriages, and other equipment over the same tracks precludes the assignment of costs on a scientific basis to any one item so transported.
Rates
Transport rates are based on both the above economic laws. When a freight rate is high, it is normally a small proportion of the selling cost. Under the law of increasing returns, revenues to the carrier increase disproportionately to costs, especially when constant costs are a large part of the total costs. On the other hand, a commodity with a low margin or profit per unit may be charged a low freight rate to facilitate a wider market and bring the carrier a greater volume of traffic. The increased volume compensates for the lower rates only when the return pays the variable expenses and contributes something towards the constant costs.
Transport conveyance of people or property from one place to another. Modern commercial transport includes all the means and facilities used in the movement of people or property, and all services involved in the receipt, delivery, and handling of such property. The commercial transport of people is classified as passenger service and that of property as freight service. Transport is one of the largest industries in the world. See Also Public Transport.
The early refinement of water transport was stimulated by the tendency of populations to centre on seacoasts or navigable waterways. The ancient Romans used vessels equipped with sails and several banks of oars to transport their armies to Carthage and other theatres of operation. Improvements were subsequently made in shipbuilding and in the rigging and manipulation of sails. With these changes, along with the adoption of the mariner's compass, sailing in the open sea out of sight of land became feasible. See Ships and Shipbuilding.
Overland transport developed at a much slower pace, although the Romans built good roads for military purposes between garrison centres and ports. For centuries the customary means of travel, which were restricted to riding on animals' backs or on animal-drawn carts or sleds (see Carriage; Coach), rarely exceeded a rate of 16 km/h (10 mph). Overland transport showed little improvement until the 1820s, when the British engineer George Stephenson adapted the steam engine to power a locomotive and initiated, between Stockton and Darlington, in north-east England, the first steam railway.
TRANSPORT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Over the course of history five modes of transport have been used in the United Kingdom: water, road, rail, air, and pipeline.
Water
Rivers were the main means of communication in the United Kingdom until the mid-18th century. During the 16th century several Acts of Parliament were passed aimed at improving river navigation and by 1750 some 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of navigable waterway were available, including local “cuts”, and there were some locks. Towns located on river estuaries or on the coast were linked by coastal shipping. The first true canal was built at Newry, in Ireland, in about 1740 and remained in use until 1930. In England the Sankey Canal in Lancashire, connecting to the River Mersey, was built between 1757 and 1773. As with the Newry canal, a main purpose was transport of coal. By 1776 James Brindley had built the Bridgewater canal from Worsley in Lancashire to Manchester. The canal was so named because it was built for the Duke of Bridgewater to move coal from his Worsley collieries. Thus began the “Canal Age”: by 1850 there were some 1,450 km (900 mi) of navigable water in Ireland and 6,560 km (4,100 mi) in the rest of Britain. Virtually all the goods of the early Industrial Revolution were transported by water, either along the coast or along canals and navigable rivers. Horses provided the motive power on the canals most of the time, although human power was used in some circumstances, for example for passage through tunnels. Among the great canal engineers alongside James Brindley were William Jessop and Thomas Telford. The American Robert Fulton also played a small part in the construction of British canals. In spite of the advent of railways, canals were still used to transport much of the heavy, bulky goods until World War II. Some canals were bought up by the railways and used as rail routes.
Steamships
The American inventor Robert Fulton built the first efficient steamboat, the Clermont. The Clermont made its maiden trip in 1807 on the Hudson River from New York to Albany, accomplishing the round-trip distance of about 480 km (300 mi) in 62 hours. It was fitted with British machinery and was followed in 1812 by Henry Bell's Comet, which sailed on the Clyde. The first ship to employ steam propulsion in a transatlantic crossing was the American vessel Savannah in 1819, although sail was used during part of the 29-day voyage. By 1840 a steamship could make six trips between America and Europe in the time it took a sailing ship to make three. The so-called clipper, a fast and beautiful type of sailing vessel, was the last stand of the commercial sailing ship. It was built between 1845 and 1851, but could not compete after 1851 with the progressively larger and faster steamships.
Modern Vessels
The diesel engine has given modern ships more economical operation and has largely replaced the steam engine. The use of nuclear power in ships is today largely confined to military vessels. Other developments in modern navigation are the hovercraft (see Air Cushion Vehicle), a vessel that rides on a cushion of air a few centimetres above the water or land; and the hydrofoil, a vessel equipped with wing-like planes or struts that, at a certain speed, lift the hull out of the water to attain an even greater speed. Until the advent of the jet airliner around 1960, the large ocean liner provided the means for intercontinental passenger travel.
Diesel-powered vessels still perform a valuable role in linking islands to the mainland, as off the western coast of Scotland, or in Greece.
Road
The roads that had been built by the Romans in England (see Roman Roads) were allowed to deteriorate and by the beginning of the 18th century British roads largely consisted of dirt tracks. However, the need for better communications was realized and the concept of toll roads, or turnpikes, was introduced. The first of these was the improvement of the Great North Road, now the A1, connecting London and York. It was upgraded as a result of a 1663 Act of Parliament. Little more was done until 1706, when “Turnpike Trusts” were introduced, effectively placing road development on a commercial basis. This began an era of major road improvement and road building, which was to last until the first part of the 19th century. By 1750 some 13 strategic turnpikes radiated from London and were of sufficient quality to bring in the era of the stagecoach. Many new roads were built in the period up to 1772 and stagecoach journey times were reduced. At the beginning of the stagecoach era it took 12 days to travel from London to Scotland, but this was reduced to nine days and less by using relays of horses. By 1770 light post-chaise vehicles could do the journey in five days.
Political and military considerations led to the first development of roads in the more northern regions of Scotland. General George Wade started this work in 1725 and by the time he left the area in 1740 some 400 km (250 mi) of new road had been completed. By 1767 the figure had risen to nearly 1,300 km (800 mi).
A further important influence was the decision of the Post Office in 1784 to replace post horses by mail coaches, firstly on the London to Bristol service. As the service expanded in the latter part of the 18th century and first part of the 19th century, it brought with it the demand for more and better roads. Such engineers took up the challenge created by this as Thomas Telford, who realized the need for a proper foundation for the roads. In 1816 John Loudon McAdam proposed the concept of a road surface made up of small pieces of granite bound together by dust, which acted as rudimentary cement. Telford's first major road-building programme was the Carlisle to Glasgow road, now the A74/M74, completed in about 1820. Telford then turned his attention to the Shrewsbury to Holyhead road, the A5, including his Menai suspension bridge, which was completed in 1826. Around this time many new turnpikes were initiated, and by 1835 some 3,300 stagecoaches were in use. It was possible to travel from London to major cities up to about 200 km (125 mi) away in a day, and there were 40,000 km (2,500 mi) of roads in England and Wales.
The advent of the railway had an adverse effect on the stagecoach and many turnpikes began to deteriorate, as the trusts were unable to raise sufficient income for their upkeep. In 1888 an Act of Parliament was passed that transferred responsibility for roads to local government authorities. It came on the eve of the next era of road transport, that of the motorcar.
The car brought with it a demand for smoother road surfaces, which was achieved by coating the McAdam-type granite roads with tar to give a “tarmacadam” surface. The comfort of travel was further improved with the introduction of the pneumatic tyre. This was originally patented by Robert William Thompson in 1846 but was made practical by John Boyd Dunlop in 1882. Road travel was now as comfortable as rail travel and it was soon realized that it conferred the additional advantage of flexibility. As the 20th century progressed, goods as well as passengers were increasingly moved by road. In the first half of the century many roads were improved, especially by building bypasses around towns to reduce traffic congestion. However, it was realized by 1950 that these measures would not be adequate for the vast increase of road traffic anticipated in the second half of the century. To provide for this, the motorway was introduced. The first major section of motorway in Britain was the southern end of the M1, opened in 1960, although a short length of the M5 near Preston preceded it. Road transport now represents the major mode of transport for overland passengers and goods.
Rail
Before the advent of the steam locomotive there were a large number of horse-drawn tramways, especially in coal-mining areas. These provided a base for the first true railway developments. Although there were earlier experimenters, it fell to George Stephenson to develop the first practical steam locomotive and apply it commercially on the Stockton to Darlington railway, opened in 1825. He followed this up with the famous Rocket locomotive of 1829, designed in conjunction with his son, Robert Stephenson for the Liverpool to Manchester railways. In 1830 Robert Stephenson produced a new locomotive, the Planet, which established the definitive steam locomotive.
Many railway proposals were made in the 1830s. These included the London to Birmingham railway, opened in 1838, which formed part of a network linking London with Liverpool, Manchester, and Preston. Isambard Kingdom Brunel was appointed engineer on the London to Southampton, later London and South Western railway in 1831, the line being completed in 1840. Brunel chose to use a wider gauge than the standard of the other railways, which caused problems until an Act of Parliament in 1846 established a standard gauge for all new railways. By 1844 there were about 3,600 km (2,240 mi) of railway of which about one-tenth was broad-gauge. This had extended to nearly 10,000 km (6,000 mi) by 1850, and the basic national network had been established. The line from London along the west coast reached Aberdeen in that year, as did the east coast line, using ferries over the rivers Forth and Tay.
An interesting consequence of rail development was disruption of the mail coach system as operators went out of business because of lack of passengers. Mail was taken by rail from as early as 1838 but even by 1850 the rail network was not as extensive as the roads. Rail expansion continued well into the 20th century and the network finally reached most corners of the nation, having a length of over 65,000 km (4,000 mi).
Technical developments during the latter part of the 19th century included electric traction, first used publicly on Volk's railway along the Brighton seafront in 1879. This was followed in 1890 by electrification of the London underground railway system.
From about World War II the railway network became outdated, unreliable and inefficient. Diesel traction to replace steam engines had been introduced experimentally in Germany as early as 1912, and from 1950 onwards began to replace steam on British railways, a process completed by the mid-1960s. Passenger and goods traffic fell with the increasing use of cars and lorries. A major decision was taken after the 1963 report by Lord Beeching, which proposed concentrating the railways into the main routes. There was a drastic reduction of branch lines, removing about three-quarters of the rail mileage. A programme of electrification of main lines was introduced, and still continues. In spite of many problems, rail still provides fast, comfortable inter-city travel and somewhat less comfortable travel for hundreds of thousands who commute daily into the larger cities. However, much of the freight traffic has been lost to the roads, which has put a major financial burden on the system.
Air
Air transport is the most rapidly developing form of modern transport. Although the American aviation pioneers Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first flight in a heavier-than-air craft at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903, it was not until after World War I that air transport achieved prominence generally. (see Aeroplane; Aviation).
At this time early passenger- and mail-carrying flights commenced in Europe, while in the United States the emphasis was on mail alone. In the period between World War I and World War II, commercial flying was extended and many plans were made for a worldwide network. However, early operations were vulnerable to the weather, and therefore somewhat unreliable and expensive. Thus air transport was not significant until more regular services were introduced in the United States, just before World War II. The technological development of aircraft during World War II changed the situation and from 1945 onwards passenger-carrying flights became more important. Piston-engined propeller-driven airliners became larger, more reliable and more efficient. The significant change came with the introduction of the jet-powered airliner, initially as early as 1952 in Britain, with the ill-fated DeHavilland Comet, but more generally in 1958, with the American Boeing 707. The speed, comfort and economy of the aircraft rapidly attracted long-distance passengers from the ocean liners, and air soon proved to be more convenient for shorter distances as well. A further advance was made about 1970 with the introduction of longer-range, large-capacity wide-bodied airliners, exemplified by the Boeing 747 or “jumbo-jet”. Later versions can carry upwards of 500 passengers, or a somewhat smaller number over distances of about 13,000 km (8,000 mi). The advent of the supersonic Concorde airliner in the 1970s has not significantly changed the pattern of air transport, since it is only for the few who can afford the high fares.
Air travel is the most popular form of passenger travel for distances in excess of 800 km (500 mi). Cargo carriage by air is growing, but it is still a relatively small part of the total operation. See Air Transport Industry.
Pipelines
Although pipelines for water have been used since ancient times, the other applications are relatively recent. Significant amongst them in the United Kingdom is a national network for the conveyance of natural gas. There are also local oil delivery systems. Pipelines are of major importance in some countries. In the United Sates, oil, liquefied gas and pulverized coal are some of the products transported by pipeline. Although they transport only liquid products, pipelines were responsible in 1990 for about 20 per cent of the total freight shipped in the United States.
INTERMODAL TRANSPORT
Moving people or commodities in the same closed unit or container over two or more different modes of transport is known as intermodal transport.
Freight Service
Routed through rail, roads, ships, or aeroplanes, a freight container is locked and sealed at origin, and the contents are not disturbed until the seal is broken by the consignee when the freight is unloaded at its destination; only one bill of lading or air waybill is issued. If foreign countries are involved, the freight moves under international treaties, which facilitate inspection by customs at national border points before the final destination is reached.
Inland Terminals
The essential element in intermodal transport is the lorry that picks up or delivers the freight at its origin and destination. A ship or an aeroplane cannot back up to a door at a store, factory, or warehouse, nor can rail rolling stock, except where industrial track is provided. Some airlines are using containers that are interchangeable with road carriers, but not with a ship or rail container. An economic advantage of the aeroplane, not yet fully explored, is the ability to make strategically situated inland cities major export-import centres, and this capability can be implemented with interchangeable containers. This involves picking up or delivering foreign air cargo at an inland point under a single air waybill or bill of lading. Such inland air terminal points now relate to their surrounding regions much as ocean ports have for centuries.
Containerization
So-called roll-on/roll-off container ships take entire articulated lorries, with their trailers. Rigid conformity is not necessary, because any vehicle with wheels can be moved aboard and tied down. This type of ship has proved efficient on relatively short runs, such as across the English Channel between Great Britain and Belgium, France, or the Netherlands. In contrast, many of the so-called lift-on/lift-off ships, for example, cannot interchange their containers with similar ships of another company because of differences in box sizes and structures. These discrepancies in turn affect the road carriers equipped for specialized types of containers and limit them to certain ships.
In an all-container ship, leading costs are approximately 1/20 that of a conventional ship of similar size. A container ship can discharge and load cargo in approximately 13 hours, compared with 84 hours for a conventional ship, thus affording faster turn-round time. In general, 500 tonnes per gang-hour can be handled with containerization, whereas 25 tonnes per gang-hour is a good average with conventional break-bulk methods.
LASH
Among other variations in intermodal transport is LASH (lighter aboard ship). In this method, a parent ship carries detachable lighters, or barges, with the ship standing out in the stream while the lighters are shunted between ship and shore. This is advantageous where shallow water exists at a port and the conventional ship is unable to dock in the usual manner. Regardless of the type of port, the turn-round time on these ships can be as little as 8 hours.
Advantages and Disadvantages
In intermodal freight transport the container is locked against pilfering and sealed against the weather, usual packing requirements are relaxed, and the freight is billed as a volume shipment. Interchange of material is expedited, and containers can be used for storage; some terminals are fitted with electrical outlets for maintaining refrigerated containers. Damage claims on container cargo have been found to be much lower, and pilfering has been almost eliminated. Intermodal efficiency and economy can be attained particularly well in marine transport.
There have been difficulties in implementing the labour-saving costs of intermodal freight transport. Among these have been initial opposition by labour; the initial cost of specialized equipment; the installation costs of terminals for container operations; and foreign exchange difficulties on shipments for which international treaties have not been executed.
REGULATORY AGENCIES
In many countries of Western Europe, some rail, steamship, and air transport facilities are government-owned. Road carriers are nationalized only when operated in conjunction with a rail or water carrier. In France, privately owned public road carriers observe rules and regulations that differ from those for road carriers operated in conjunction with railways. Privately owned public carriers are regulated in all nations, with the minister of transport performing this function in most European countries. In the United States, Congress has created specialized agencies for this purpose.
In the United Kingdom the Department of Transport is responsible for regulation of transport, although in some cases this is delegated to other authorities. For example, the Civil Aviation Authority is charged with the promulgation of air safety regulations, including the examination, inspection, certification, and rating of aircraft and flight crew. It oversees all safety matters relating to manufacture, operation, and maintenance of aircraft and all flight inspections of air-navigation facilities, and provides for the enforcement of safety regulations.
Transport Economics
The transport industry is subject to certain economic laws. The law of increasing returns asserts that expenditures do not increase in the same proportion as revenues when the volume of business increases. Once a transport system is established with fixed capital, an expansion in the volume of shipments causes operating expenses to rise, but has little effect on constant expenditures and results in decreased expense per unit. This holds true as long as unused plant capacity is available—that is, until, for instance, double tracking on a railway is necessary, or, for a road carrier, increased equipment and terminal facilities are required. In each mode of transport the relationship of constant to variable expenses depends on its physical equipment and the nature of its operation.
The law of joint cost involves the production of two or more products from a single operation. The haulage of railway freight wagons, passenger carriages, and other equipment over the same tracks precludes the assignment of costs on a scientific basis to any one item so transported.
Rates
Transport rates are based on both the above economic laws. When a freight rate is high, it is normally a small proportion of the selling cost. Under the law of increasing returns, revenues to the carrier increase disproportionately to costs, especially when constant costs are a large part of the total costs. On the other hand, a commodity with a low margin or profit per unit may be charged a low freight rate to facilitate a wider market and bring the carrier a greater volume of traffic. The increased volume compensates for the lower rates only when the return pays the variable expenses and contributes something towards the constant costs.
TRAVEL AND TOURISM
Faraway places with strange-sounding names lure the traveler with promises of enchantment, excitement, diverse forms of entertainment, and tantalizing new kinds of food. The urge to travel is as old as civilization. The great historian Herodotus roamed the ancient world, examining the customs of many lands before writing his famous 'History'. Hundreds of years later a young man from Venice named Marco Polo set out with his father for China, and his writings opened the Far East to Europeans of his time. About the same time Ibn Battutah, an Islamic scholar, traveled about 75,000 miles (121,000 kilometers) and recorded his wanderings in the widely read 'Rihlah' (Travels).
Today travel and tourism account for the largest portion of money spent in international commerce. National tourism expenditures in the early 1980s were more than $100 billion. Domestic tourism was much greater. The modern travel industry is organized to cater to every need and desire of the individual traveler. While travel was once an uncertain and hazardous event, it is now an easily planned and coordinated adventure that has been revolutionized by vast improvements in transportation, computer technology, and networks of international communication.
Components of the Travel Industry
The individual traveler is concerned about where to go, how to get there, where to stay, where to eat, and what to see. The travel industry is organized to meet these concerns in a variety of ways: travel agents and tour companies, transport companies, hotel reservation systems, ground transport companies, restaurant reservation systems, and local or national tourism boards.
Destination. Unless the trip is a business or family necessity, the first interest in the mind of the prospective traveler is where to go and what to see. The mass of information available to satisfy the traveler's curiosity is virtually unlimited. Nearly every nation has a national tourism board, and within nations there are tourism bureaus in states, provinces, and cities. All of these advertise extensively in order to attract tourists. Competition in the travel business is intense, and many localities depend heavily on tourism for income.
In addition to advertising by governmental bureaus, travel companies publish many pamphlets and brochures. And there are thousands of travel books available on every place a tourist might wish to visit.
Transportation. There are two categories of transportation used by travelers. First is the means used to get from home to the destination, and second is the type used at the destination. In some cases the two may be identical. If a family drives from Denver to Los Angeles, the family car serves both purposes. But a businessman making the same trip would probably fly to the Los Angeles International Airport and rent a car there.
Tourists who fly to Europe may rent cars, ride the extensive railway networks, get about by motor coach, or even go from one place to another by ship, ferry, or riverboat. If they stay in one location, they often take advantage of local public transportation--streetcars, buses, and subways.
The age of international travel was revolutionized on Oct. 26, 1958, when Pan American World Airways flew a Boeing 707 jet airplane from New York City to Paris with 123 people on board. Jets cut long-distance air travel time in half.
In the following decades the airline industry expanded greatly and used a variety of airplanes. Among the smaller, short-haul jets were the Boeing 737 and the DC-9. Larger planes included the wide-bodied Boeing 747, 757, and 767, the Lockheed L-1011, the DC-10, and the European Airbus (see Airplane). There are now more than 200 airlines serving Europe--the most popular tourist destination--from all parts of the world. Nearly every country has its own domestic airlines, including the new commuter services that provide inexpensive intercity transportation.
Thousands of years before the airplane, ships provided transportation between widely separated landmasses. As late as the 1950s, travel by ship was one of the most popular ways to get across the Atlantic. In the same week that Pan American flew its jet to Paris, at least a dozen ships sailed from New York City to Europe. But jet air travel doomed international travel by ship. Fortunately the world's shipping lines found a new use for their ships--the cruise business (see "The Cruise Industry" in this article).
In the century before the airplane was invented, the railroad became a primary means of ground transportation in North America and Europe. Rail passenger service in the United States has become limited, but it is still a major form of transportation in Europe, Canada, Mexico, and many other parts of the world. In Europe, where travel distances are often short, it is usually more convenient and inexpensive to go by train than by airplane.
Countries and cities eager for tourist business often offer transportation bargains. The best known is probably the Eurail pass, which allows unlimited train travels in Western European countries for specific periods of time. Many countries have their own rail passes as well. Cities such as London and Paris offer passes for unlimited travel on local buses, underground railways, or streetcars.
Accommodations. The huge upsurge in tourism after 1958 spawned a proportional increase in the amount of hotel space available around the world. For centuries there have been inns, taverns, and hostels open to travelers. In the late 20th century the hotel business is dominated by such chains as Hilton, Holiday Inn, Intercontinental, Sheraton, Radisson, Ramada, Hyatt, Marriott, Westin, TraveLodge, Best Western, Quality Inns, Regent International, Trusthouse Forte, Four Seasons Hotels, Meridien, IBIS, and Swissotel. Today there are more than 9 million hotel and motel rooms available around the world.
Hotels operated by chains normally offer accommodations ranging from the expensive to the luxurious. But there are still many privately owned inns and hotels that offer adequate facilities--both rooms and meals--for much less than chain hotels. Least expensive for the average traveler is the pension, or boardinghouse, which offers inexpensive rooms and meals. Students can stay in youth hostels at nominal costs, and some hostels now welcome older travelers. Most travel agents carry adequate directories of hotels, pensions, and hostels worldwide. Reservations can often be made through marketing representatives in various countries.
Restaurants. Eating out poses few problems for a tourist who speaks the language of the country, but menus in another language can be confusing and frustrating. It has been suggested that menus be printed in several languages, and restaurants in many major tourist centers now follow this practice.
Dining habits vary from country to country. In Italy, for example, a ristorante is an eating establishment where one is expected to order a full, several-course meal. In a trattoria, on the other hand, one can eat as much or as little as one chooses. In Spain the evening meal is very late, normally after 10 PM; but people often eat snacks called tapas in the early evening to tide them over until dinner.
In some popular tourist spots, reservations must be made weeks in advance. This often means asking a travel agent to do it. Hotel employees, who can recommend good dining establishments, can handle reservations made locally.
The Cruise Industry
After the first commercial jets began flying the Atlantic in 1958, oceangoing passenger service went into a sharp decline. Shipping companies failed, and ships were scrapped. Travel by airplane could save both time and money.
Passenger shipping was saved from extinction by a novel concept: the ship as destination. Instead of being a mode of transportation from one place to another, the ship itself became the attraction. The shipping lines that could not make money by transporting passengers across the Atlantic or Pacific found that they could turn a profit by emphasizing the ship's facilities rather than the ports of call.
Ships were refitted and redecorated to become floating hotels--oceangoing resorts. That they stopped at various ports of call was only an added attraction because there was so much to do on the ship itself: swimming, gambling, movies, games, exercise groups, shows, classes, lectures, and fine dining. And everything was included in one price.
Today cruise lines operate in all parts of the world. The most popular areas are the Caribbean and the Mediterranean seas, but there are also cruises operating to the west coast of Mexico and to Alaska, to the east coast of South America, to the Black Sea or the Baltic, to various ports in the South Pacific, along the coast of China, and around Australia. There are a few around-the-world cruises that last about 90 days, and there are specialized cruises that offer study while at sea. Some of the major cruise lines that operate today are Carnival, Cunard, Paquet, Princess, Sitmar, Sundance, Western, Commodore, Dolphin, Eastern, Norwegian Caribbean, Royal Caribbean, Home Lines, Holland America, Royal Viking, Chandris, Costa, American, American Canadian, Cycladic, Epirotiki, K-Lines, Sea Goddess, and Pearl Cruises.
Resorts
Resorts are special-purpose destinations. They may be places in the sun to get away from winter's cold; they may be places in the snow to enjoy skiing and other winter sports; or they may be health resorts such as Hot Springs, Ark., or Baden-Baden, Germany. Whichever type of resort is chosen, the normal purpose is to get away from it all for a while, to enjoy relaxation and recreation.
Modern resorts have their antecedents in health spas dating back to the late Middle Ages in continental Europe and in seaside resorts that emerged in England in the 18th century. Spa is the name of a town in Belgium that has long been noted for its beneficial mineral waters. There are a great many similar towns and cities in Europe and England to which people have gone for centuries, hoping for cures for a variety of ailments. The first well-known sea resort was Brighton, England, still a popular summer vacation spot.
The modern resorts of the Caribbean islands, Mexico, the Canary Islands, the French Riviera, Spain's south and east coasts, Hawaii, the Italian Riviera, the Greek islands, Florida, California, and the Black Sea coast attract many thousands of visitors each year. Like cruise ships, they offer a great variety of recreation opportunities. Unlike the ships, they have golf courses, tennis courts, ocean bathing, and other features that ships cannot provide.
The winter resort is of more recent origin. Skiing, made more popular by the Winter Olympic Games, is the main attraction. Therefore most winter resorts are in mountainous areas such as the Austrian, German, Italian, Swiss, and French Alps; the Canadian and American Rockies; and the mountains of Vermont and New Hampshire. The first major ski resort in the United States was developed at Sun Valley, Idaho.
Travel Agents and Tour Companies
In 1841 an English Baptist missionary named Thomas Cook arranged for a railway excursion from Leicester to Loughborough for a temperance group. Three years later the railroad--the Midland Counties Railway Company--agreed to make the excursion a permanent feature if Cook would provide the passengers. He became the first travel agent, and the company he founded--Thomas Cook and Son--went on to become one of the world's leading travel agencies with offices around the world.
In the late 1950s, before the jet age, there were about 3,000 travel agents in the United States. By the late 1980s there were more than 20,000, with tens of thousands more worldwide. A travel agent is a retailer, an intermediary between the prospective traveler and all the components of a trip. Agents book and sell airline, train, bus, and ship tickets. They reserve hotel rooms and arrange for ground transportation at the destination. They can also make restaurant reservations and obtain theater tickets. For these and other services those whose wares they sell pay them a commission.
Tour operators are companies that arrange every aspect of a travel package. They bring together all the elements of a trip for travelers or for groups of travelers: plane reservations and tickets, hotel arrangements, ground transportation, entertainment, and more. All these components are sold together as a package. Travelers may deal directly with a tour company, or they may book tours through a travel agent.
Today there is a great deal of overlapping between the services of travel agents and tour operators. Companies like Thomas Cook and American Express perform both services, and many independent travel agencies put together tour packages for customers. Among the other major tour companies now operating around the world are: Maupintour, Cartan, Four Winds Travel, International Weekends, Olson Travel, Hemphill-Harris Tours, Lindblad Travel, General Tours, Perillo Tours, the Cortell Group, Globus-Gateway, EuroWorld, CIE Tours, Bennett Tours, Crownline, Charter Travel, China Orient Tour Service, Trafalgar Tours, Single-World, DER Travel Service, and Arthur Frommer Tours.
Trip Planning
Arranging for a trip can be as simple as telephoning for a motel reservation or as complex as setting up an around-the-world tour. The more arrangements to be made the more useful are the services of a travel agent. Airlines and many hotel chains also make extensive travel arrangements.
Travelers to a foreign country need certain documents in order to be allowed in and out of the country. The most necessary of credentials is the passport. This is a formal document issued by governments to their citizens. It establishes the carrier's identity and nationality and authorizes travel outside the country. A United States passport is valid for either five or ten years. To obtain one an individual needs proof of citizenship, two recent identical photographs 2 by 2 inches (5 by 5 centimeters), proof of identity, and a fee payable to Passport Services. A signed application form must accompany these. Passports may be obtained from passport offices in 13 cities, from some post offices, and from some clerks of federal or state courts (see Passport).
A visa is required for entry into some countries and may be obtained at a point of entry. This is an endorsement placed in a passport indicating it has been examined and approved by a government official.
Some countries also require travelers to show a vaccination certificate. Vaccination requirements vary, but common diseases against which visitors need immunity are cholera and yellow fever. Local health departments normally inform prospective travelers of infected areas in all parts of the world. Vaccination certificates can be obtained from passport offices.
Individuals who plan to drive in foreign countries may need an international driver's license, usually available from automobile clubs. Travelers should also be aware of currency regulations, conversion rates, and customs regulations of countries to be visited.
Today travel and tourism account for the largest portion of money spent in international commerce. National tourism expenditures in the early 1980s were more than $100 billion. Domestic tourism was much greater. The modern travel industry is organized to cater to every need and desire of the individual traveler. While travel was once an uncertain and hazardous event, it is now an easily planned and coordinated adventure that has been revolutionized by vast improvements in transportation, computer technology, and networks of international communication.
Components of the Travel Industry
The individual traveler is concerned about where to go, how to get there, where to stay, where to eat, and what to see. The travel industry is organized to meet these concerns in a variety of ways: travel agents and tour companies, transport companies, hotel reservation systems, ground transport companies, restaurant reservation systems, and local or national tourism boards.
Destination. Unless the trip is a business or family necessity, the first interest in the mind of the prospective traveler is where to go and what to see. The mass of information available to satisfy the traveler's curiosity is virtually unlimited. Nearly every nation has a national tourism board, and within nations there are tourism bureaus in states, provinces, and cities. All of these advertise extensively in order to attract tourists. Competition in the travel business is intense, and many localities depend heavily on tourism for income.
In addition to advertising by governmental bureaus, travel companies publish many pamphlets and brochures. And there are thousands of travel books available on every place a tourist might wish to visit.
Transportation. There are two categories of transportation used by travelers. First is the means used to get from home to the destination, and second is the type used at the destination. In some cases the two may be identical. If a family drives from Denver to Los Angeles, the family car serves both purposes. But a businessman making the same trip would probably fly to the Los Angeles International Airport and rent a car there.
Tourists who fly to Europe may rent cars, ride the extensive railway networks, get about by motor coach, or even go from one place to another by ship, ferry, or riverboat. If they stay in one location, they often take advantage of local public transportation--streetcars, buses, and subways.
The age of international travel was revolutionized on Oct. 26, 1958, when Pan American World Airways flew a Boeing 707 jet airplane from New York City to Paris with 123 people on board. Jets cut long-distance air travel time in half.
In the following decades the airline industry expanded greatly and used a variety of airplanes. Among the smaller, short-haul jets were the Boeing 737 and the DC-9. Larger planes included the wide-bodied Boeing 747, 757, and 767, the Lockheed L-1011, the DC-10, and the European Airbus (see Airplane). There are now more than 200 airlines serving Europe--the most popular tourist destination--from all parts of the world. Nearly every country has its own domestic airlines, including the new commuter services that provide inexpensive intercity transportation.
Thousands of years before the airplane, ships provided transportation between widely separated landmasses. As late as the 1950s, travel by ship was one of the most popular ways to get across the Atlantic. In the same week that Pan American flew its jet to Paris, at least a dozen ships sailed from New York City to Europe. But jet air travel doomed international travel by ship. Fortunately the world's shipping lines found a new use for their ships--the cruise business (see "The Cruise Industry" in this article).
In the century before the airplane was invented, the railroad became a primary means of ground transportation in North America and Europe. Rail passenger service in the United States has become limited, but it is still a major form of transportation in Europe, Canada, Mexico, and many other parts of the world. In Europe, where travel distances are often short, it is usually more convenient and inexpensive to go by train than by airplane.
Countries and cities eager for tourist business often offer transportation bargains. The best known is probably the Eurail pass, which allows unlimited train travels in Western European countries for specific periods of time. Many countries have their own rail passes as well. Cities such as London and Paris offer passes for unlimited travel on local buses, underground railways, or streetcars.
Accommodations. The huge upsurge in tourism after 1958 spawned a proportional increase in the amount of hotel space available around the world. For centuries there have been inns, taverns, and hostels open to travelers. In the late 20th century the hotel business is dominated by such chains as Hilton, Holiday Inn, Intercontinental, Sheraton, Radisson, Ramada, Hyatt, Marriott, Westin, TraveLodge, Best Western, Quality Inns, Regent International, Trusthouse Forte, Four Seasons Hotels, Meridien, IBIS, and Swissotel. Today there are more than 9 million hotel and motel rooms available around the world.
Hotels operated by chains normally offer accommodations ranging from the expensive to the luxurious. But there are still many privately owned inns and hotels that offer adequate facilities--both rooms and meals--for much less than chain hotels. Least expensive for the average traveler is the pension, or boardinghouse, which offers inexpensive rooms and meals. Students can stay in youth hostels at nominal costs, and some hostels now welcome older travelers. Most travel agents carry adequate directories of hotels, pensions, and hostels worldwide. Reservations can often be made through marketing representatives in various countries.
Restaurants. Eating out poses few problems for a tourist who speaks the language of the country, but menus in another language can be confusing and frustrating. It has been suggested that menus be printed in several languages, and restaurants in many major tourist centers now follow this practice.
Dining habits vary from country to country. In Italy, for example, a ristorante is an eating establishment where one is expected to order a full, several-course meal. In a trattoria, on the other hand, one can eat as much or as little as one chooses. In Spain the evening meal is very late, normally after 10 PM; but people often eat snacks called tapas in the early evening to tide them over until dinner.
In some popular tourist spots, reservations must be made weeks in advance. This often means asking a travel agent to do it. Hotel employees, who can recommend good dining establishments, can handle reservations made locally.
The Cruise Industry
After the first commercial jets began flying the Atlantic in 1958, oceangoing passenger service went into a sharp decline. Shipping companies failed, and ships were scrapped. Travel by airplane could save both time and money.
Passenger shipping was saved from extinction by a novel concept: the ship as destination. Instead of being a mode of transportation from one place to another, the ship itself became the attraction. The shipping lines that could not make money by transporting passengers across the Atlantic or Pacific found that they could turn a profit by emphasizing the ship's facilities rather than the ports of call.
Ships were refitted and redecorated to become floating hotels--oceangoing resorts. That they stopped at various ports of call was only an added attraction because there was so much to do on the ship itself: swimming, gambling, movies, games, exercise groups, shows, classes, lectures, and fine dining. And everything was included in one price.
Today cruise lines operate in all parts of the world. The most popular areas are the Caribbean and the Mediterranean seas, but there are also cruises operating to the west coast of Mexico and to Alaska, to the east coast of South America, to the Black Sea or the Baltic, to various ports in the South Pacific, along the coast of China, and around Australia. There are a few around-the-world cruises that last about 90 days, and there are specialized cruises that offer study while at sea. Some of the major cruise lines that operate today are Carnival, Cunard, Paquet, Princess, Sitmar, Sundance, Western, Commodore, Dolphin, Eastern, Norwegian Caribbean, Royal Caribbean, Home Lines, Holland America, Royal Viking, Chandris, Costa, American, American Canadian, Cycladic, Epirotiki, K-Lines, Sea Goddess, and Pearl Cruises.
Resorts
Resorts are special-purpose destinations. They may be places in the sun to get away from winter's cold; they may be places in the snow to enjoy skiing and other winter sports; or they may be health resorts such as Hot Springs, Ark., or Baden-Baden, Germany. Whichever type of resort is chosen, the normal purpose is to get away from it all for a while, to enjoy relaxation and recreation.
Modern resorts have their antecedents in health spas dating back to the late Middle Ages in continental Europe and in seaside resorts that emerged in England in the 18th century. Spa is the name of a town in Belgium that has long been noted for its beneficial mineral waters. There are a great many similar towns and cities in Europe and England to which people have gone for centuries, hoping for cures for a variety of ailments. The first well-known sea resort was Brighton, England, still a popular summer vacation spot.
The modern resorts of the Caribbean islands, Mexico, the Canary Islands, the French Riviera, Spain's south and east coasts, Hawaii, the Italian Riviera, the Greek islands, Florida, California, and the Black Sea coast attract many thousands of visitors each year. Like cruise ships, they offer a great variety of recreation opportunities. Unlike the ships, they have golf courses, tennis courts, ocean bathing, and other features that ships cannot provide.
The winter resort is of more recent origin. Skiing, made more popular by the Winter Olympic Games, is the main attraction. Therefore most winter resorts are in mountainous areas such as the Austrian, German, Italian, Swiss, and French Alps; the Canadian and American Rockies; and the mountains of Vermont and New Hampshire. The first major ski resort in the United States was developed at Sun Valley, Idaho.
Travel Agents and Tour Companies
In 1841 an English Baptist missionary named Thomas Cook arranged for a railway excursion from Leicester to Loughborough for a temperance group. Three years later the railroad--the Midland Counties Railway Company--agreed to make the excursion a permanent feature if Cook would provide the passengers. He became the first travel agent, and the company he founded--Thomas Cook and Son--went on to become one of the world's leading travel agencies with offices around the world.
In the late 1950s, before the jet age, there were about 3,000 travel agents in the United States. By the late 1980s there were more than 20,000, with tens of thousands more worldwide. A travel agent is a retailer, an intermediary between the prospective traveler and all the components of a trip. Agents book and sell airline, train, bus, and ship tickets. They reserve hotel rooms and arrange for ground transportation at the destination. They can also make restaurant reservations and obtain theater tickets. For these and other services those whose wares they sell pay them a commission.
Tour operators are companies that arrange every aspect of a travel package. They bring together all the elements of a trip for travelers or for groups of travelers: plane reservations and tickets, hotel arrangements, ground transportation, entertainment, and more. All these components are sold together as a package. Travelers may deal directly with a tour company, or they may book tours through a travel agent.
Today there is a great deal of overlapping between the services of travel agents and tour operators. Companies like Thomas Cook and American Express perform both services, and many independent travel agencies put together tour packages for customers. Among the other major tour companies now operating around the world are: Maupintour, Cartan, Four Winds Travel, International Weekends, Olson Travel, Hemphill-Harris Tours, Lindblad Travel, General Tours, Perillo Tours, the Cortell Group, Globus-Gateway, EuroWorld, CIE Tours, Bennett Tours, Crownline, Charter Travel, China Orient Tour Service, Trafalgar Tours, Single-World, DER Travel Service, and Arthur Frommer Tours.
Trip Planning
Arranging for a trip can be as simple as telephoning for a motel reservation or as complex as setting up an around-the-world tour. The more arrangements to be made the more useful are the services of a travel agent. Airlines and many hotel chains also make extensive travel arrangements.
Travelers to a foreign country need certain documents in order to be allowed in and out of the country. The most necessary of credentials is the passport. This is a formal document issued by governments to their citizens. It establishes the carrier's identity and nationality and authorizes travel outside the country. A United States passport is valid for either five or ten years. To obtain one an individual needs proof of citizenship, two recent identical photographs 2 by 2 inches (5 by 5 centimeters), proof of identity, and a fee payable to Passport Services. A signed application form must accompany these. Passports may be obtained from passport offices in 13 cities, from some post offices, and from some clerks of federal or state courts (see Passport).
A visa is required for entry into some countries and may be obtained at a point of entry. This is an endorsement placed in a passport indicating it has been examined and approved by a government official.
Some countries also require travelers to show a vaccination certificate. Vaccination requirements vary, but common diseases against which visitors need immunity are cholera and yellow fever. Local health departments normally inform prospective travelers of infected areas in all parts of the world. Vaccination certificates can be obtained from passport offices.
Individuals who plan to drive in foreign countries may need an international driver's license, usually available from automobile clubs. Travelers should also be aware of currency regulations, conversion rates, and customs regulations of countries to be visited.
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