TRANSPORT

INTRODUCTION

Transport conveyance of people or property from one place to another. Modern commercial transport includes all the means and facilities used in the movement of people or property, and all services involved in the receipt, delivery, and handling of such property. The commercial transport of people is classified as passenger service and that of property as freight service. Transport is one of the largest industries in the world. See Also Public Transport.
The early refinement of water transport was stimulated by the tendency of populations to centre on seacoasts or navigable waterways. The ancient Romans used vessels equipped with sails and several banks of oars to transport their armies to Carthage and other theatres of operation. Improvements were subsequently made in shipbuilding and in the rigging and manipulation of sails. With these changes, along with the adoption of the mariner's compass, sailing in the open sea out of sight of land became feasible. See Ships and Shipbuilding.
Overland transport developed at a much slower pace, although the Romans built good roads for military purposes between garrison centres and ports. For centuries the customary means of travel, which were restricted to riding on animals' backs or on animal-drawn carts or sleds (see Carriage; Coach), rarely exceeded a rate of 16 km/h (10 mph). Overland transport showed little improvement until the 1820s, when the British engineer George Stephenson adapted the steam engine to power a locomotive and initiated, between Stockton and Darlington, in north-east England, the first steam railway.

TRANSPORT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Over the course of history five modes of transport have been used in the United Kingdom: water, road, rail, air, and pipeline.

Water
Rivers were the main means of communication in the United Kingdom until the mid-18th century. During the 16th century several Acts of Parliament were passed aimed at improving river navigation and by 1750 some 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of navigable waterway were available, including local “cuts”, and there were some locks. Towns located on river estuaries or on the coast were linked by coastal shipping. The first true canal was built at Newry, in Ireland, in about 1740 and remained in use until 1930. In England the Sankey Canal in Lancashire, connecting to the River Mersey, was built between 1757 and 1773. As with the Newry canal, a main purpose was transport of coal. By 1776 James Brindley had built the Bridgewater canal from Worsley in Lancashire to Manchester. The canal was so named because it was built for the Duke of Bridgewater to move coal from his Worsley collieries. Thus began the “Canal Age”: by 1850 there were some 1,450 km (900 mi) of navigable water in Ireland and 6,560 km (4,100 mi) in the rest of Britain. Virtually all the goods of the early Industrial Revolution were transported by water, either along the coast or along canals and navigable rivers. Horses provided the motive power on the canals most of the time, although human power was used in some circumstances, for example for passage through tunnels. Among the great canal engineers alongside James Brindley were William Jessop and Thomas Telford. The American Robert Fulton also played a small part in the construction of British canals. In spite of the advent of railways, canals were still used to transport much of the heavy, bulky goods until World War II. Some canals were bought up by the railways and used as rail routes.

Steamships
The American inventor Robert Fulton built the first efficient steamboat, the Clermont. The Clermont made its maiden trip in 1807 on the Hudson River from New York to Albany, accomplishing the round-trip distance of about 480 km (300 mi) in 62 hours. It was fitted with British machinery and was followed in 1812 by Henry Bell's Comet, which sailed on the Clyde. The first ship to employ steam propulsion in a transatlantic crossing was the American vessel Savannah in 1819, although sail was used during part of the 29-day voyage. By 1840 a steamship could make six trips between America and Europe in the time it took a sailing ship to make three. The so-called clipper, a fast and beautiful type of sailing vessel, was the last stand of the commercial sailing ship. It was built between 1845 and 1851, but could not compete after 1851 with the progressively larger and faster steamships.

Modern Vessels
The diesel engine has given modern ships more economical operation and has largely replaced the steam engine. The use of nuclear power in ships is today largely confined to military vessels. Other developments in modern navigation are the hovercraft (see Air Cushion Vehicle), a vessel that rides on a cushion of air a few centimetres above the water or land; and the hydrofoil, a vessel equipped with wing-like planes or struts that, at a certain speed, lift the hull out of the water to attain an even greater speed. Until the advent of the jet airliner around 1960, the large ocean liner provided the means for intercontinental passenger travel.
Diesel-powered vessels still perform a valuable role in linking islands to the mainland, as off the western coast of Scotland, or in Greece.

Road
The roads that had been built by the Romans in England (see Roman Roads) were allowed to deteriorate and by the beginning of the 18th century British roads largely consisted of dirt tracks. However, the need for better communications was realized and the concept of toll roads, or turnpikes, was introduced. The first of these was the improvement of the Great North Road, now the A1, connecting London and York. It was upgraded as a result of a 1663 Act of Parliament. Little more was done until 1706, when “Turnpike Trusts” were introduced, effectively placing road development on a commercial basis. This began an era of major road improvement and road building, which was to last until the first part of the 19th century. By 1750 some 13 strategic turnpikes radiated from London and were of sufficient quality to bring in the era of the stagecoach. Many new roads were built in the period up to 1772 and stagecoach journey times were reduced. At the beginning of the stagecoach era it took 12 days to travel from London to Scotland, but this was reduced to nine days and less by using relays of horses. By 1770 light post-chaise vehicles could do the journey in five days.
Political and military considerations led to the first development of roads in the more northern regions of Scotland. General George Wade started this work in 1725 and by the time he left the area in 1740 some 400 km (250 mi) of new road had been completed. By 1767 the figure had risen to nearly 1,300 km (800 mi).
A further important influence was the decision of the Post Office in 1784 to replace post horses by mail coaches, firstly on the London to Bristol service. As the service expanded in the latter part of the 18th century and first part of the 19th century, it brought with it the demand for more and better roads. Such engineers took up the challenge created by this as Thomas Telford, who realized the need for a proper foundation for the roads. In 1816 John Loudon McAdam proposed the concept of a road surface made up of small pieces of granite bound together by dust, which acted as rudimentary cement. Telford's first major road-building programme was the Carlisle to Glasgow road, now the A74/M74, completed in about 1820. Telford then turned his attention to the Shrewsbury to Holyhead road, the A5, including his Menai suspension bridge, which was completed in 1826. Around this time many new turnpikes were initiated, and by 1835 some 3,300 stagecoaches were in use. It was possible to travel from London to major cities up to about 200 km (125 mi) away in a day, and there were 40,000 km (2,500 mi) of roads in England and Wales.
The advent of the railway had an adverse effect on the stagecoach and many turnpikes began to deteriorate, as the trusts were unable to raise sufficient income for their upkeep. In 1888 an Act of Parliament was passed that transferred responsibility for roads to local government authorities. It came on the eve of the next era of road transport, that of the motorcar.
The car brought with it a demand for smoother road surfaces, which was achieved by coating the McAdam-type granite roads with tar to give a “tarmacadam” surface. The comfort of travel was further improved with the introduction of the pneumatic tyre. This was originally patented by Robert William Thompson in 1846 but was made practical by John Boyd Dunlop in 1882. Road travel was now as comfortable as rail travel and it was soon realized that it conferred the additional advantage of flexibility. As the 20th century progressed, goods as well as passengers were increasingly moved by road. In the first half of the century many roads were improved, especially by building bypasses around towns to reduce traffic congestion. However, it was realized by 1950 that these measures would not be adequate for the vast increase of road traffic anticipated in the second half of the century. To provide for this, the motorway was introduced. The first major section of motorway in Britain was the southern end of the M1, opened in 1960, although a short length of the M5 near Preston preceded it. Road transport now represents the major mode of transport for overland passengers and goods.

Rail
Before the advent of the steam locomotive there were a large number of horse-drawn tramways, especially in coal-mining areas. These provided a base for the first true railway developments. Although there were earlier experimenters, it fell to George Stephenson to develop the first practical steam locomotive and apply it commercially on the Stockton to Darlington railway, opened in 1825. He followed this up with the famous Rocket locomotive of 1829, designed in conjunction with his son, Robert Stephenson for the Liverpool to Manchester railways. In 1830 Robert Stephenson produced a new locomotive, the Planet, which established the definitive steam locomotive.
Many railway proposals were made in the 1830s. These included the London to Birmingham railway, opened in 1838, which formed part of a network linking London with Liverpool, Manchester, and Preston. Isambard Kingdom Brunel was appointed engineer on the London to Southampton, later London and South Western railway in 1831, the line being completed in 1840. Brunel chose to use a wider gauge than the standard of the other railways, which caused problems until an Act of Parliament in 1846 established a standard gauge for all new railways. By 1844 there were about 3,600 km (2,240 mi) of railway of which about one-tenth was broad-gauge. This had extended to nearly 10,000 km (6,000 mi) by 1850, and the basic national network had been established. The line from London along the west coast reached Aberdeen in that year, as did the east coast line, using ferries over the rivers Forth and Tay.
An interesting consequence of rail development was disruption of the mail coach system as operators went out of business because of lack of passengers. Mail was taken by rail from as early as 1838 but even by 1850 the rail network was not as extensive as the roads. Rail expansion continued well into the 20th century and the network finally reached most corners of the nation, having a length of over 65,000 km (4,000 mi).
Technical developments during the latter part of the 19th century included electric traction, first used publicly on Volk's railway along the Brighton seafront in 1879. This was followed in 1890 by electrification of the London underground railway system.
From about World War II the railway network became outdated, unreliable and inefficient. Diesel traction to replace steam engines had been introduced experimentally in Germany as early as 1912, and from 1950 onwards began to replace steam on British railways, a process completed by the mid-1960s. Passenger and goods traffic fell with the increasing use of cars and lorries. A major decision was taken after the 1963 report by Lord Beeching, which proposed concentrating the railways into the main routes. There was a drastic reduction of branch lines, removing about three-quarters of the rail mileage. A programme of electrification of main lines was introduced, and still continues. In spite of many problems, rail still provides fast, comfortable inter-city travel and somewhat less comfortable travel for hundreds of thousands who commute daily into the larger cities. However, much of the freight traffic has been lost to the roads, which has put a major financial burden on the system.

Air
Air transport is the most rapidly developing form of modern transport. Although the American aviation pioneers Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first flight in a heavier-than-air craft at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903, it was not until after World War I that air transport achieved prominence generally. (see Aeroplane; Aviation).
At this time early passenger- and mail-carrying flights commenced in Europe, while in the United States the emphasis was on mail alone. In the period between World War I and World War II, commercial flying was extended and many plans were made for a worldwide network. However, early operations were vulnerable to the weather, and therefore somewhat unreliable and expensive. Thus air transport was not significant until more regular services were introduced in the United States, just before World War II. The technological development of aircraft during World War II changed the situation and from 1945 onwards passenger-carrying flights became more important. Piston-engined propeller-driven airliners became larger, more reliable and more efficient. The significant change came with the introduction of the jet-powered airliner, initially as early as 1952 in Britain, with the ill-fated DeHavilland Comet, but more generally in 1958, with the American Boeing 707. The speed, comfort and economy of the aircraft rapidly attracted long-distance passengers from the ocean liners, and air soon proved to be more convenient for shorter distances as well. A further advance was made about 1970 with the introduction of longer-range, large-capacity wide-bodied airliners, exemplified by the Boeing 747 or “jumbo-jet”. Later versions can carry upwards of 500 passengers, or a somewhat smaller number over distances of about 13,000 km (8,000 mi). The advent of the supersonic Concorde airliner in the 1970s has not significantly changed the pattern of air transport, since it is only for the few who can afford the high fares.
Air travel is the most popular form of passenger travel for distances in excess of 800 km (500 mi). Cargo carriage by air is growing, but it is still a relatively small part of the total operation. See Air Transport Industry.

Pipelines
Although pipelines for water have been used since ancient times, the other applications are relatively recent. Significant amongst them in the United Kingdom is a national network for the conveyance of natural gas. There are also local oil delivery systems. Pipelines are of major importance in some countries. In the United Sates, oil, liquefied gas and pulverized coal are some of the products transported by pipeline. Although they transport only liquid products, pipelines were responsible in 1990 for about 20 per cent of the total freight shipped in the United States.

INTERMODAL TRANSPORT

Moving people or commodities in the same closed unit or container over two or more different modes of transport is known as intermodal transport.

Freight Service
Routed through rail, roads, ships, or aeroplanes, a freight container is locked and sealed at origin, and the contents are not disturbed until the seal is broken by the consignee when the freight is unloaded at its destination; only one bill of lading or air waybill is issued. If foreign countries are involved, the freight moves under international treaties, which facilitate inspection by customs at national border points before the final destination is reached.

Inland Terminals
The essential element in intermodal transport is the lorry that picks up or delivers the freight at its origin and destination. A ship or an aeroplane cannot back up to a door at a store, factory, or warehouse, nor can rail rolling stock, except where industrial track is provided. Some airlines are using containers that are interchangeable with road carriers, but not with a ship or rail container. An economic advantage of the aeroplane, not yet fully explored, is the ability to make strategically situated inland cities major export-import centres, and this capability can be implemented with interchangeable containers. This involves picking up or delivering foreign air cargo at an inland point under a single air waybill or bill of lading. Such inland air terminal points now relate to their surrounding regions much as ocean ports have for centuries.

Containerization
So-called roll-on/roll-off container ships take entire articulated lorries, with their trailers. Rigid conformity is not necessary, because any vehicle with wheels can be moved aboard and tied down. This type of ship has proved efficient on relatively short runs, such as across the English Channel between Great Britain and Belgium, France, or the Netherlands. In contrast, many of the so-called lift-on/lift-off ships, for example, cannot interchange their containers with similar ships of another company because of differences in box sizes and structures. These discrepancies in turn affect the road carriers equipped for specialized types of containers and limit them to certain ships.
In an all-container ship, leading costs are approximately 1/20 that of a conventional ship of similar size. A container ship can discharge and load cargo in approximately 13 hours, compared with 84 hours for a conventional ship, thus affording faster turn-round time. In general, 500 tonnes per gang-hour can be handled with containerization, whereas 25 tonnes per gang-hour is a good average with conventional break-bulk methods.

LASH

Among other variations in intermodal transport is LASH (lighter aboard ship). In this method, a parent ship carries detachable lighters, or barges, with the ship standing out in the stream while the lighters are shunted between ship and shore. This is advantageous where shallow water exists at a port and the conventional ship is unable to dock in the usual manner. Regardless of the type of port, the turn-round time on these ships can be as little as 8 hours.

Advantages and Disadvantages
In intermodal freight transport the container is locked against pilfering and sealed against the weather, usual packing requirements are relaxed, and the freight is billed as a volume shipment. Interchange of material is expedited, and containers can be used for storage; some terminals are fitted with electrical outlets for maintaining refrigerated containers. Damage claims on container cargo have been found to be much lower, and pilfering has been almost eliminated. Intermodal efficiency and economy can be attained particularly well in marine transport.
There have been difficulties in implementing the labour-saving costs of intermodal freight transport. Among these have been initial opposition by labour; the initial cost of specialized equipment; the installation costs of terminals for container operations; and foreign exchange difficulties on shipments for which international treaties have not been executed.

REGULATORY AGENCIES

In many countries of Western Europe, some rail, steamship, and air transport facilities are government-owned. Road carriers are nationalized only when operated in conjunction with a rail or water carrier. In France, privately owned public road carriers observe rules and regulations that differ from those for road carriers operated in conjunction with railways. Privately owned public carriers are regulated in all nations, with the minister of transport performing this function in most European countries. In the United States, Congress has created specialized agencies for this purpose.
In the United Kingdom the Department of Transport is responsible for regulation of transport, although in some cases this is delegated to other authorities. For example, the Civil Aviation Authority is charged with the promulgation of air safety regulations, including the examination, inspection, certification, and rating of aircraft and flight crew. It oversees all safety matters relating to manufacture, operation, and maintenance of aircraft and all flight inspections of air-navigation facilities, and provides for the enforcement of safety regulations.

Transport Economics
The transport industry is subject to certain economic laws. The law of increasing returns asserts that expenditures do not increase in the same proportion as revenues when the volume of business increases. Once a transport system is established with fixed capital, an expansion in the volume of shipments causes operating expenses to rise, but has little effect on constant expenditures and results in decreased expense per unit. This holds true as long as unused plant capacity is available—that is, until, for instance, double tracking on a railway is necessary, or, for a road carrier, increased equipment and terminal facilities are required. In each mode of transport the relationship of constant to variable expenses depends on its physical equipment and the nature of its operation.
The law of joint cost involves the production of two or more products from a single operation. The haulage of railway freight wagons, passenger carriages, and other equipment over the same tracks precludes the assignment of costs on a scientific basis to any one item so transported.

Rates
Transport rates are based on both the above economic laws. When a freight rate is high, it is normally a small proportion of the selling cost. Under the law of increasing returns, revenues to the carrier increase disproportionately to costs, especially when constant costs are a large part of the total costs. On the other hand, a commodity with a low margin or profit per unit may be charged a low freight rate to facilitate a wider market and bring the carrier a greater volume of traffic. The increased volume compensates for the lower rates only when the return pays the variable expenses and contributes something towards the constant costs.